title: Sex steroids and vascular responses in hypertension and aging.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Sex hormones play a significant role in human physiology. Estrogen may have protective effects in the cardiovascular system, as evidenced by the decreased incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in premenopausal compared with postmenopausal women.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This review highlights the acute and long-term effects of sex hormones on the vascular endothelium and vascular smooth muscle (VSM) in adults. Changes in the sex hormone mix, their receptors, and their effects on vascular function in hypertension and aging are also discussed.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature collected from the National Centers for Biotechnology Information as identified by a PubMed database search, as well as our experimental work, was used to highlight current knowledge regarding vascular responses to sex hormones in hypertension and in aging.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Experiments in adult female animals have shown that estrogen induces endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation via the nitric oxide (NO), prostacyclin, and hyperpolarization pathways. Also, surface membrane estrogen receptors (ERs) decrease intracellular free Ca2+ concentration and perhaps protein kinase C-dependent VSM contraction. However, clinical trials such as the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS), HERS-II, and the Women's Health Initiative did not support the experimental findings and demonstrated adverse cardiovascular events of hormone therapy (HT) in aging women. The lack of vascular benefits of HT may be related to the hormone used, the ER, or the patient's cardiovascular condition or age. Experiments on vascular strips from aging (16-month-old) female spontaneously hypertensive rats have shown reduced ER-mediated NO production from endothelial cells and decreased inhibitory effects of estrogen on Ca2+ entry mechanisms of VSM contraction. The age-related decrease in ER-mediated vascular relaxation may explain the decreased effectiveness of HT on CVD in aging women.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  New HT strategies should further examine the benefits of natural estrogens and phytoestrogens. Transdermal estrogen may be more effective than the oral form, and specific ER modulators may maximize the vascular benefits and reduce the risk of invasive breast cancer. Variants of vascular ERs should be screened for genetic polymorphisms and postmenopausal decrease in the amount of downstream signaling mechanisms. HT may be more effective during the menopausal transition than in late menopause. Progesterone, testosterone, or their specific modulators may be combined with estrogen to provide alternative HT strategies. Thus, HT type, dose, route of administration, and timing should be customized, depending on the patient's cardiovascular condition and age, thereby enhancing the vascular benefits of HT in aging women.
authors.affiliation: Division of Vascular Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
authors.forename: Xiaoying
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Qiao
authors.forename: Kristi R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: McConnell
authors.forename: Raouf A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Khalil
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology*; D000818:Animals; D002118:Calcium / Q000502:physiology; D042783:Endothelial Cells / Q000502:physiology; D004730:Endothelium, Vascular / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology*; D004958:Estradiol / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine; D004967:Estrogens / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000503:physiopathology*; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000502:physiology; D011493:Protein Kinase C / Q000502:physiology; D011960:Receptors, Estrogen / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D004967:Estrogens; D011960:Receptors, Estrogen; D009569:Nitric Oxide; D004958:Estradiol; C001390:2-hydroxyestradiol; D011493:Protein Kinase C; D002118:Calcium