title: Non-invasive diagnosis and monitoring of chronic kidney disease by reverse iontophoresis of urea in vivo.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Reverse iontophoresis uses a small current to extract molecules and ions through the skin. The aim of the study was to determine whether reverse iontophoresis of urea can be used (i) to diagnose and monitor non-invasively chronic kidney disease (CKD), and (ii) to track urea levels closely during a hemodialysis session.
  
  
  METHODS
  A current of 0.8mA was applied for 2h in 10 healthy volunteers, in 9 patients with CKD, and in 10 patients undergoing hemodialysis. Urea fluxes extracted by reverse iontophoresis and urea concentrations in the blood were measured.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Extracted urea fluxes discriminated healthy volunteers from patients with CKD within 90 min. A non-invasive measure of blood urea concentrations can be achieved after 120 min. A urea reservoir in the skin interferes with the extraction and a pre-hemodialysis "depletion" period is required. Mild and transient sensation and erythema induced by iontophoresis were significantly lower in the CKD group. Gelling the formulation of the iontophoresis reservoir gave similar results to those obtained when using a simple aqueous solution.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Reverse iontophoresis can be used to non-invasively diagnose individuals with CKD and to monitor urea concentrations in blood.
authors.affiliation: Université Catholique de Louvain, Unité de Pharmacie Galénique, Brussels, Belgium.
authors.forename: Valentine
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Wascotte
authors.forename: Eric
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Rozet
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Salvaterra
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Hubert
authors.forename: Michel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jadoul
authors.forename: Richard H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Guy
authors.forename: Véronique
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Préat
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D004566:Electrodes; D004890:Erythema / Q000139:chemically induced; D005260:Female; D005782:Gels; D006801:Humans; D007478:Iontophoresis; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008991:Monitoring, Physiologic; D006435:Renal Dialysis; D014508:Urea / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D005782:Gels; D014508:Urea