title: Gene prediction in metagenomic fragments: a large scale machine learning approach.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Metagenomics is an approach to the characterization of microbial genomes via the direct isolation of genomic sequences from the environment without prior cultivation. The amount of metagenomic sequence data is growing fast while computational methods for metagenome analysis are still in their infancy. In contrast to genomic sequences of single species, which can usually be assembled and analyzed by many available methods, a large proportion of metagenome data remains as unassembled anonymous sequencing reads. One of the aims of all metagenomic sequencing projects is the identification of novel genes. Short length, for example, Sanger sequencing yields on average 700 bp fragments, and unknown phylogenetic origin of most fragments require approaches to gene prediction that are different from the currently available methods for genomes of single species. In particular, the large size of metagenomic samples requires fast and accurate methods with small numbers of false positive predictions.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We introduce a novel gene prediction algorithm for metagenomic fragments based on a two-stage machine learning approach. In the first stage, we use linear discriminants for monocodon usage, dicodon usage and translation initiation sites to extract features from DNA sequences. In the second stage, an artificial neural network combines these features with open reading frame length and fragment GC-content to compute the probability that this open reading frame encodes a protein. This probability is used for the classification and scoring of gene candidates. With large scale training, our method provides fast single fragment predictions with good sensitivity and specificity on artificially fragmented genomic DNA. Additionally, this method is able to predict translation initiation sites accurately and distinguishes complete from incomplete genes with high reliability.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Large scale machine learning methods are well-suited for gene prediction in metagenomic DNA fragments. In particular, the combination of linear discriminants and neural networks is promising and should be considered for integration into metagenomic analysis pipelines. The data sets can be downloaded from the URL provided (see Availability and requirements section).
authors.affiliation: Abteilung Bioinformatik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany. katharina@gobics.de
authors.forename: Katharina J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Hoff
authors.forename: Maike
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Tech
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Lingner
authors.forename: Rolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Daniel
authors.forename: Burkhard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Morgenstern
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Meinicke
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001185:Artificial Intelligence; D002874:Chromosome Mapping / Q000379:methods*; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics*; D016680:Genome, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics*; D010363:Pattern Recognition, Automated / Q000379:methods*; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D004269:DNA, Bacterial