title: Learning from the legal history of billing for medical fees.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  When patients pay for care out-of-pocket, physicians must balance their professional obligations to serve with the commercial demands of medical practice. Consumer-directed health care makes this problem newly pressing, but law and ethics have thought for millennia about how doctors should bill patients.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  At various points in European history, the law restricted doctors' ability to bill for their services, but this legal aversion to commercializing medicine did not take root in the American colonies. Rather, US law has always treated selling medical services the way it treats other sales. Yet doctors acted differently in a crucial way. Driven by the economics of medical practice before the spread of health insurance, doctors charged patients according to what they thought each patient could afford. The use of sliding fee scales persisted until widespread health insurance drove a standardization of fees. CURRENT PRACTICE: Today, encouraged by Medicare rules and managed care discounts, providers use a perverse form of a sliding scale that charges the most to patients who can afford the least. Primary care physicians typically charge uninsured patients one third to one half more than they receive from insurers for basic office or hospital visits, and markups are substantially higher (2 to 2.5 times) for high-tech tests and specialists' invasive procedures.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Ethical and professional principles might require providers to return to discounting fees for patients in straitened circumstances, but imposing such a duty formally (by law or by ethical code) on doctors would be harder both in principle and in practice than to impose such a duty on hospitals. Still, professional ethics should encourage physicians to give patients in economic trouble at least the benefit of the lowest rate they accept from an established payer.
authors.affiliation: Division of Public Health Sciences, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27157-1063, USA. mhall@wfubmc.edu
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.forename: Carl E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Schneider
mesh_terms: D004992:Ethics, Medical; D005060:Europe; D005251:Fees, Medical / Q000941:ethics* / Q000266:history / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D006801:Humans; D008329:Managed Care Programs / Q000941:ethics / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D006278:Medicare / Q000941:ethics / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D010820:Physicians / Q000941:ethics* / Q000266:history / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D012923:Social Class; D014481:United States