title: Measuring the exposure of infants and children to indoor air pollution from biomass fuels in The Gambia.
abstract: Indoor air pollution (IAP) from biomass fuels contains high concentrations of health damaging pollutants and is associated with an increased risk of childhood pneumonia. We aimed to design an exposure measurement component for a matched case-control study of IAP as a risk factor for pneumonia and severe pneumonia in infants and children in The Gambia. We conducted co-located simultaneous area measurement of carbon monoxide (CO) and particles with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 microm (PM(2.5)) in 13 households for 48 h each. CO was measured using a passive integrated monitor and PM(2.5) using a continuous monitor. In three of the 13 households, we also measured continuous PM(2.5) concentration for 2 weeks in the cooking, sleeping, and playing areas. We used gravimetric PM(2.5) samples as the reference to correct the continuous PM(2.5) for instrument measurement error. Forty-eight hour CO and PM(2.5) concentrations in the cooking area had a correlation coefficient of 0.80. Average 48-h CO and PM(2.5) concentrations in the cooking area were 3.8 +/- 3.9 ppm and 361 +/- 312 microg/m3, respectively. The average 48-h CO exposure was 1.5 +/- 1.6 ppm for children and 2.4 +/- 1.9 ppm for mothers. PM(2.5) exposure was an estimated 219 microg/m3 for children and 275 microg/m3 for their mothers. The continuous PM(2.5) concentration had peaks in all households representing the morning, midday, and evening cooking periods, with the largest peak corresponding to midday. The results are used to provide specific recommendations for measuring the exposure of infants and children in an epidemiological study.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Measuring personal particulate matter (PM) exposure of young children in epidemiological studies is hindered by the absence of small personal monitors. Simultaneous measurement of PM and carbon monoxide suggests that a combination of methods may be needed for measuring children's PM exposure in areas where household biomass combustion is the primary source of indoor air pollution. Children's PM exposure in biomass burning homes in The Gambia is substantially higher than concentrations in the world's most polluted cities.
authors.affiliation: Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
authors.forename: K L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Dionisio
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Howie
authors.forename: K M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Fornace
authors.forename: O
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Chimah
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Adegbola
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ezzati
mesh_terms: D016902:Air Pollution, Indoor / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis*; D018533:Biomass; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D005260:Female; D005714:Gambia / Q000453:epidemiology; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D011014:Pneumonia / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology
chemical_list: D002248:Carbon Monoxide