title: Clinical applications of musculoskeletal tissue engineering.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Current surgical techniques for the repair of the musculoskeletal system can be often limited by the availability, quality and quantity of materials, such as grafts to effect repair. This has led to the exploration and development of novel methods of intervention based on tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review summarizes the successes and investigations which are happening to date in the field of musculoskeletal tissue engineering. This is based on an extensive literature search and through basic research being performed by the authors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Due to the constraints surrounding certain surgical techniques and restrictions on their use, novel procedures are required for the repair and regeneration of damaged tissues.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The choice of cell type has caused much debate within the tissue-engineering field. However it is widely accepted that currently only autologous primary/adult stem cells are fit for transplantation, until such times that optimized differentiation and selection protocols exist for embryonic stem cells.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The current results of the clinical cases utilizing tissue engineered constructs for bone and cartilage repair provide insights for improvement of these techniques thus allowing treatments to become increasingly viable.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is a need to better understand the integration of scaffolds and cell populations into the target tissue. This should provide vital information influencing scaffold manufacturing procedures and cell selection.
authors.affiliation: Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
authors.forename: Scott J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Roberts
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Howard
authors.forename: Lee D
authors.initials: LD
authors.lastname: Buttery
authors.forename: Kevin M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Shakesheff
mesh_terms: D002358:Cartilage, Articular; D053595:Embryonic Stem Cells / Q000166:cytology / Q000637:transplantation*; D006801:Humans; D059630:Mesenchymal Stem Cells / Q000166:cytology*; D009140:Musculoskeletal Diseases / Q000628:therapy*; D044968:Regenerative Medicine / Q000639:trends; D033581:Stem Cell Transplantation / Q000379:methods*; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods*; D054457:Tissue Scaffolds