title: Deciphering the fossil record of early bilaterian embryonic development in light of experimental taphonomy.
abstract: Experimental analyses of decay in a tunicate deuterostome and three lophotrochozoans indicate that the controls on decay and preservation of embryos, identified previously based on echinoids, are more generally applicable. Four stages of decay are identified regardless of the environment of death and decay. Embryos decay rapidly in oxic and anoxic conditions, although the gross morphology of embryos is maintained for longer under anoxic conditions. Under anoxic reducing conditions, the gross morphology of the embryos is maintained for the longest period of time, compatible with the timescale required for bacterially mediated mineralization of soft tissues. All four stages of decay were encountered under all environmental conditions, matching the spectrum of preservational qualities encountered in all fossil embryo assemblages. The preservation potential of embryos of deuterostomes and lophotrochozoans is at odds with the lack of such embryos in the fossil record. Rather, the fossil record of embryos, as sparse as it is, is dominated by forms interpreted as ecdysozoans, cnidarians, and stem-metazoans. The dearth of deuterostome and lophotrochozoan embryos may be explained by the fact that ecdysozoans, at least, tend to deposit their eggs in the sediment rather than through broadcast spawning. However, fossil embryos remain very rare and the main controlling factor on their fossilization may be the unique conspiracy of environmental conditions at a couple of sites. The preponderance of fossilized embryos of direct developers should not be used in evidence against the existence of indirect development at this time in animal evolutionary history.
authors.affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.
authors.forename: Neil J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Gostling
authors.forename: Ceri-Wyn
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.forename: Jenny M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Greenwood
authors.forename: Xiping
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Dong
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bengtson
authors.forename: Elizabeth C
authors.initials: EC
authors.lastname: Raff
authors.forename: Rudolf A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Raff
authors.forename: Bernard M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Degnan
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stampanoni
authors.forename: Philip C J
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Donoghue
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D047108:Embryonic Development / Q000502:physiology*; D004777:Environment; D005580:Fossils; D007448:Invertebrates / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000196:embryology*; D010163:Paleontology / Q000379:methods*; D012623:Seawater / Q000737:chemistry; D013045:Species Specificity