title: [Central nervous system neuromodulation for the treatment of epilepsy. II. Mechanisms of action and perspectives].
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Review of available evidence of the mechanisms of action underlying the anticonvulsant effect of current applied to various CNS structures.
  
  
  METHODS
  Studies were conducted from observations of patients with drug-resistant seizures and treated with neuromodulation. Seizures originated from various cortical areas with secondary generalization or were initially generalized without a focal origin, either clinically or on EEG or SEEG. Intracranial recordings and SEEG were performed using subdural grids or depth electrodes implanted either for recordings or therapeutic deep brain stimulation (DBS). In a group of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy patients investigated with subdural or SEEG electrodes, the epileptogenic focus area was stimulated for 15 days before anterior temporal lobectomy. The surgical specimen was examined using standard and electronic microscopy and autoradiography in order to identify several neurotransmitter receptors. They also were compared to other surgical specimens from epileptic patients who had intracerebral recordings but without stimulation (epileptic controls) and to autopsy specimens from subjects with no history of epilepsy (nonepileptic controls).
  
  
  RESULTS
  High-frequency (HF) stimulation increases the after-discharge threshold of the stimulated site and alters the cycles of potentials evoked by a test stimulation using a paradigm of coupled stimulations. HF stimulation also decreases local cerebral blood flow in the stimulated area as demonstrated on SPECT. Parahippocampal cortex HF stimulation significantly increases the GABAergic benzodiazepine receptor density in the stimulated area. In addition, centromedianum (CM) thalamic nucleus HF stimulation suppresses thalamic and cortical spike-waves, as well as secondary synchronous discharges visible on EEG. Conversely, low-frequency (3-Hz) bilateral CM stimulation induces a typical absence clinically and on EEG.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  High-frequency stimulation is responsible for an inhibition of local and propagated epileptogenesis. Low-frequency stimulation may trigger or enhance epileptogenesis when applied on epileptogenic regions.
authors.affiliation: Unité de neurochirurgie fonctionnelle, stéréotaxique et radiochirurgie, clinique d'épilepsie, hôpital Général de Mexico, DF, Mexique. fvelasco@salud.gob.mx
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Velasco
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Velasco
authors.forename: A L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Velasco
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Rocha
authors.forename: J D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Carrillo-Ruiz
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Castro
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cuéllar-Herrera
mesh_terms: D002490:Central Nervous System / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D046690:Deep Brain Stimulation / Q000009:adverse effects; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted; D004569:Electroencephalography; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000628:therapy*; D004833:Epilepsy, Temporal Lobe / Q000628:therapy; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D019635:Neurosurgical Procedures; D013238:Stereotaxic Techniques; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon; D016896:Treatment Outcome