title: Transglutaminases: widespread cross-linking enzymes in plants.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Transglutaminases have been studied in plants since 1987 in investigations aimed at interpreting some of the molecular mechanisms by which polyamines affect growth and differentiation. Transglutaminases are a widely distributed enzyme family catalysing a myriad of biological reactions in animals. In plants, the post-translational modification of proteins by polyamines forming inter- or intra-molecular cross-links has been the main transglutaminase reaction studied.
  The few plant transglutaminases sequenced so far have little sequence homology with the best-known animal enzymes, except for the catalytic triad; however, they share a possible structural homology. Proofs of their catalytic activity are: (a) their ability to produce glutamyl-polyamine derivatives; (b) their recognition by animal transglutaminase antibodies; and (c) biochemical features such as calcium-dependency, etc. However, many of their fundamental biochemical and physiological properties still remain elusive.
  It has been detected in algae and in angiosperms in different organs and sub-cellular compartments, chloroplasts being the best-studied organelles.
  Possible roles concern the structural modification of specific protein substrates. In chloroplasts, transglutaminases appear to stabilize the photosynthetic complexes and Rubisco, being regulated by light and other factors, and possibly exerting a positive effect on photosynthesis and photo-protection. In the cytosol, they modify cytoskeletal proteins. Preliminary reports suggest an involvement in the cell wall construction/organization. Other roles appear to be related to fertilization, abiotic and biotic stresses, senescence and programmed cell death, including the hypersensitive reaction.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The widespread occurrence of transglutaminases activity in all organs and cell compartments studied suggests a relevance for their still incompletely defined physiological roles. At present, it is not possible to classify this enzyme family in plants owing to the scarcity of information on genes encoding them.
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Biologia evoluzionistica sperimentale, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 42, 40126 Bologna, Italy. donatella.serafini@unibo.it
authors.forename: Donatella
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Serafini-Fracassini
authors.forename: Stefano
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Del Duca
mesh_terms: D000586:Amination; D017209:Apoptosis; D002473:Cell Wall / Q000201:enzymology; D002736:Chloroplasts / Q000201:enzymology; D003432:Cross-Linking Reagents / Q000378:metabolism*; D003600:Cytosol / Q000201:enzymology; D056890:Eukaryota / Q000201:enzymology; D015971:Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic; D051479:Plant Infertility; D010944:Plants / Q000201:enzymology*; D011073:Polyamines / Q000378:metabolism; D011499:Protein Processing, Post-Translational; D011503:Transglutaminases / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D003432:Cross-Linking Reagents; D011073:Polyamines; D011503:Transglutaminases