title: Carbon dioxide induces erratic respiratory responses in bipolar disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  CO(2) respiration stimulates both anxiety and dyspnea ("air hunger") and has long been used to study panic vulnerability and respiratory control. High comorbidity with panic attacks suggests individuals with bipolar disorder may also mount a heightened anxiety response to CO(2). Moreover, problems in the arousal and modulation of appetites are central to the clinical syndromes of mania and depression; hence CO(2) may arouse an abnormal respiratory response to "air hunger".
  
  
  METHODS
  72 individuals (34 bipolar I, 25 depressive and bipolar spectrum, 13 with no major affective diagnosis) breathed air and air with 5% CO(2) via facemask for up to 15 min each; subjective and respiratory responses were recorded.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Nearly half the subjects diverged from the typical response to a fixed, mildly hypercapneic environment, which is to increase breathing acutely, and then maintain a hyperpneic plateau. The best predictors of an abnormal pattern were bipolar diagnosis and anxiety from air alone. 25 individuals had a panic response; panic responses from CO(2) were more likely in subjects with bipolar I compared to other subjects, however the best predictors of a panic response overall were anxiety from air alone and prior history of panic attacks.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Heterogeneous sample, liberal definition of panic attack.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Carbon dioxide produces abnormal respiratory and heightened anxiety responses among individuals with bipolar and depressive disorders. These may be due to deficits in emotional conditioning related to fear and appetite. Although preliminary, this work suggests a potentially useful test of a specific functional deficit in bipolar disorder.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Maryland, USA. dmackin@jhmi.edu
authors.forename: Dean F
authors.initials: DF
authors.lastname: Mackinnon
authors.forename: Brandie
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Craighead
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lorenz
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001007:Anxiety / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000175:diagnosis; D001714:Bipolar Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D002245:Carbon Dioxide / Q000494:pharmacology; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D003865:Major Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D004417:Dyspnea / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000175:diagnosis; D004644:Emotions / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D005239:Fear / Q000187:drug effects / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006935:Hypercapnia / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000175:diagnosis; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016584:Panic Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology; D012119:Respiration / Q000187:drug effects*; D012120:Respiration Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D002245:Carbon Dioxide