Gradients of coastal fish farm effluents and their effect on coral reef microbes.
Coastal milkfish (Chanos chanos) farming may be a source of organic matter enrichment for coral reefs in Bolinao, Republic of the Philippines. Interactions among microbial communities associated with the water column, corals and milkfish feces can provide insight into the ecosystem's response to enrichment. Samples were collected at sites along a transect that extended from suspended milkfish pens into the coral reef. Water was characterized by steep gradients in the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (70-160 microM), total dissolved nitrogen (7-40 microM), chlorophyll a (0.25-10 microg l(-1)), particulate matter (106-832 microg l(-1)), bacteria (5 x 10(5)-1 x 10(6) cells ml(-1)) and viruses (1-7 x 10(7) ml(-1)) that correlated with distance from the fish cages. Particle-attached bacteria, which were observed by scanning laser confocal microscopy, increased across the gradient from < 0.1% to 5.6% of total bacteria at the fish pens. Analyses of 16S rRNA genes by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and environmental clone libraries revealed distinct microbial communities for each sample type. Coral libraries had the greatest number of phyla represented (range: 6-8) while fish feces contained the lowest number (3). Coral libraries also had the greatest number of 'novel' sequences (defined as < 93% similar to any sequence in the NCBI nt database; 29% compared with 3% and 5% in the feces and seawater libraries respectively). Despite the differences in microbial community composition, some 16S rRNA sequences co-occurred across sample types including Acinetobacter sp. and Ralstonia sp. Such patterns raise the question of whether bacteria might be transported from the fish pens to corals or if microenvironments at the fish pens and on the corals select for the same phylotypes. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of effluent-coral interactions will help predict the ability of coral reef ecosystems to resist and rebound from organic matter enrichment.
Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 8750 Biological Grade, Hubbs Hall, rm 4200, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA. mgarren@ucsd.edu
Melissa
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Garren
Steven
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Smriga
Farooq
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Azam
D000818:Animals; D037421:Anthozoa / Q000382:microbiology*; D017756:Aquaculture; D001419:Bacteria / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development*; D002244:Carbon / Q000737:chemistry; D002734:Chlorophyll / Q000737:chemistry; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D017753:Ecosystem; D016521:Electrophoresis, Gel, Pulsed-Field; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology; D005399:Fishes / Q000378:metabolism*; D005798:Genes, Bacterial; D020459:Genes, rRNA; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000032:analysis / Q000382:microbiology; D009584:Nitrogen / Q000737:chemistry; D010679:Philippines; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S / Q000235:genetics; D012623:Seawater / Q000032:analysis / Q000382:microbiology; D016415:Sequence Alignment; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis
D004269:DNA, Bacterial; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D002734:Chlorophyll; D002244:Carbon; D009584:Nitrogen