title: Secondary hypertension: obesity and the metabolic syndrome.
abstract: The epidemic of obesity in the United States and around the world is intensifying in severity and scope and has been implicated as an underlying mechanism in systemic hypertension. Obese hypertensive individuals characteristically exhibit volume congestion, relative elevation in heart rate, and high cardiac output with concomitant activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. When the metabolic syndrome is present, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia may contribute to hypertension through diverse mechanisms. Blood pressure can be lowered when weight control measures are successful, using, for example, caloric restriction, aerobic exercise, weight loss drugs, or bariatric surgery. A major clinical challenge resides in converting short-term weight reduction into a sustained benefit. Pharmacotherapy for the obese hypertensive patient may require multiple agents, with an optimal regimen consisting of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, thiazide diuretics, beta-blockers, and calcium channel blockers if needed to attain contemporary blood pressure treatment goals.
authors.affiliation: Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Center, Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8017, USA.
authors.forename: Gregory M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Singer
authors.forename: John F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Setaro
mesh_terms: D000959:Antihypertensive Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D050110:Bariatric Surgery; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects; D004359:Drug Therapy, Combination; D006439:Hemodynamics; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy*; D020738:Leptin / Q000378:metabolism; D024821:Metabolic Syndrome / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D012084:Renin-Angiotensin System / Q000187:drug effects; D040242:Risk Reduction Behavior; D013564:Sympathetic Nervous System / Q000503:physiopathology; D015431:Weight Loss
chemical_list: D000959:Antihypertensive Agents; D020738:Leptin