title: Dyspareunia in postmenopausal women: a critical review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Dyspareunia, or pain during sexual intercourse, is among the problems most frequently reported by postmenopausal women. Past literature has almost unanimously attributed dyspareunic pain occurring during or after the menopausal transition to declining estrogen levels and vaginal atrophy.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To critically review the literature on the prevalence, risk factors, etiology, clinical presentation and treatment of postmenopausal dyspareunia. The present review also examines the traditional and widely held conceptualization of postmenopausal dyspareunia as a direct symptom of hormonal decline.
  
  
  METHODS
  Searches of medical and psychological databases were performed for relevant articles and empirical studies. The methodological quality and outcomes of the studies were systematically reviewed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Available empirical evidence suggests that dyspareunia is common in postmenopausal women, and that it is not highly correlated with menopausal status, estrogen levels or vaginal atrophy. Decreasing levels of endogenous estrogen contribute to the development of dyspareunia in postmenopausal women suffering from vaginal atrophy. Hormonal supplementation is beneficial in alleviating their pain. However, a substantial proportion of treated women do not report relief.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Postmenopausal dyspareunia occurring concurrently with vaginal atrophy is strongly associated with a lack of estrogen in the genital tract. However, a significant percentage of postmenopausal women experience dyspareunic pain that is not caused by hypoestrogenism. It is likely that other types of dyspareunia that occur premenopausally are also occurring in postmenopausal women. Research is needed to adequately address this issue. A change in perspective toward a multiaxial pain-focused approach is proposed for future research concerning dyspareunia in postmenopausal women.
authors.affiliation: McGill University, Montreal, Canada. akao@ego.psych.mcgill.ca
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kao
authors.forename: Y M
authors.initials: YM
authors.lastname: Binik
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kapuscinski
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Khalife
mesh_terms: D004414:Dyspareunia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D017698:Postmenopause / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology; D012307:Risk Factors