title: Longitudinal study on the predictors of parental stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Longitudinal study on the predictors of parental stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  To study whether anxiety, depression, or marital problems increase the parenting stress in parents of toddlers.
  
  
  METHODS
  At early pregnancy, 2 - 3 months, and 2 - 3 years after delivery, 214 low-risk couples filled in questionnaires on their marital relationship, social support, child's temperament, and self-evaluated competence in routine care-taking. In hierarchical regression analyses, they were used as predictors of parental stress.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Those mothers who in early pregnancy had adequate social support, adaptive social strategies, and high self-esteem, and who had given birth vaginally, enjoyed breastfeeding, and whose spouse supported breastfeeding reported less stress 2 - 3 years later. Pregnancy-related anxiety, depression, general anxiety, neuroticism, and vulnerability in early pregnancy, as well as child's temperament and low self-estimated competence in routine care-taking measured at both 2 - 3 months and 2 - 3 years after childbirth predicted parental stress. Depression and living alone in early pregnancy, and the child-related variables (temperament and care-taking, measured both at 2 - 3 months and 2 - 3 years after childbirth) predicted high parenting stress in fathers of toddlers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Parental stress in toddlers' parents was predicted both by the temperament of the child, and by the parents' depression, self-esteem, and anxiety, as well as by lack of support and low self-evaluated competence in routine care-taking.
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Finland. terhi.saisto@hus.fi
authors.forename: Terhi
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Saisto
authors.forename: Katariina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Salmela-Aro
authors.forename: Jari-Erik
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Nurmi
authors.forename: Erja
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Halmesmaki
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003710:Demography; D005220:Fathers / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires