title: Development of respiratory structures in embryos and first and second instars of the bark scorpion, Centruroides gracilis (Scorpiones: Buthidae).
abstract: The SEM was used to study the development of respiratory structures in successive stages in relation to the overall changes occurring in the scorpions. Book lung development is a slow process, starting with spiracles and a sac-like atrium in the early embryo and continuing lamellar formation to 150 or more in the adult. In the embryo, the primordial epithelial cells become aligned in a planar pattern as they secrete granules of material that aggregate spontaneously to form the cuticular walls of the lamellae. A blade-like structure is formed consisting of cells sandwiched within the two cuticle walls they secreted. These cells are in the primordial air channel. The adjacent hemolymph channel is nearly devoid of cells, but cross-bridges develop and help stabilize the cuticle walls and maintain the width of the channel. The cells in the primordial air channel undergo cytolysis, leaving it open for air except for cuticular cross-bridges. Development continues in the newborn (first instars); the air channels of some lamellae still contain cells and are not yet functional for gas exchange. The first instars are weak and relatively inactive. They climb up on the mother's dorsum until the first molt (about 8 days). With the cuticular walls of the lamellae in place, cells adhering to the wall in the hemolymph channel produce a thin, new tissue layer (epithelium) on the lamellar wall facing the hemolymph channel. This layer has many discontinuities as though it is slowly developing. Formation of the tissue layer and cytolysis of the cells in the air channels continue through the first molt in which little book lung cuticle is shed as exuvium. The air channels of the second instars (foraging nymphs) are now cell free and open for air passage except for the cross-bridges. The tissue layer is still incomplete and continues to be formed. It may provide the hypodermal primordium for cuticle replacement in later molts, but development was not studied beyond the second instar except for comparison with book lungs in the adult. The blade-like lamellae in the adult are larger and more numerous than in the second instar, but in the anterior book lung the shape of the cuticle wall and cross-bridges and the widths of the air and hemolymph channels are about the same as in the second instar. The air channels in the posterior part of the lamellae have distinctive, vein-like space-holders. The similarity of the adult anterior lamellae with those in the second instar suggests retention of this part through the 4-5 molts to maturation, and/or cell processes like those in the embryo are repeated, but this needs to be examined in further studies of cell and cuticle changes before and during the molts.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA. roger.farley@ucr.edu
authors.forename: Roger D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Farley
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004625:Embryo, Nonmammalian / Q000648:ultrastructure; D047108:Embryonic Development; D005260:Female; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D018978:Molting; D012137:Respiratory System / Q000196:embryology / Q000254:growth & development / Q000648:ultrastructure; D012605:Scorpions / Q000196:embryology* / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000648:ultrastructure