title: Sulfur mustard research--strategies for the development of improved medical therapy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Sulfur mustard (SM) is a bifunctional alkylating substance being used as chemical warfare agent (vesicant). It is still regarded as a significant threat in chemical warfare and terrorism. Exposure to SM produces cutaneous blisters, respiratory and gastrointestinal tract injury, eye lesions, and bone marrow depression. Victims of World War I as well as those of the Iran-Iraq war have suffered from devastating chronic health impairment. Even decades after exposure, severe long-term effects like chronic obstructive lung disease, lung fibrosis, recurrent corneal ulcer disease, chronic conjunctivitis, abnormal pigmentation of the skin, and different forms of cancer have been diagnosed.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review briefly summarizes the scientific literature and own results concerning detection, organ toxicity of SM, its proposed toxicodynamic actions, and strategies for the development of improved medical therapy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite extensive research efforts during the last century, efficient antidotes against SM have not yet been generated because its mechanism of action is not fully understood. However, deeper insights into these mechanisms gained in the last decade and promising developments of new drugs now offer new chances to minimize SM-induced organ damage and late effects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Polymerase inhibitors, anti-inflammatory drugs, antioxidants, matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors, and probably regulators of DNA damage repair are identified as promising approaches to improve treatment.
authors.affiliation: Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany. kai.kehe@lrz.uni-muenchen.de
authors.forename: Kai
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kehe
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Balszuweit
authors.forename: Judith
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Emmler
authors.forename: Helmut
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kreppel
authors.forename: Marianne
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jochum
authors.forename: Horst
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Thiermann