title: Backpacking in Yosemite and Kings Canyon National Parks and neighboring wilderness areas: how safe is the water to drink?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of this study was to determine the risk of acquiring disease from popular Sierra Nevada wilderness area lakes and streams. This study examines the relative risk factors for harmful waterborne microorganisms using coliforms as an indicator.
  
  
  METHODS
  Water was collected in the backcountry Yosemite and Kings Canyon National Parks and neighboring wilderness areas. A total of 72 sites from lakes or streams were selected to statistically differentiate the risk categories: (1) natural areas rarely visited by humans or domestic animals; (2) human day use-only areas; (3) high use by backpackers; (4) high use by pack animals; and (5) cattle- and sheep-grazing tracts. Water was collected in sterile test tubes and Millipore coliform samplers during the summer of 2006. Water was analyzed at the university microbiology lab, where bacteria were harvested and then subjected to analysis using standardized techniques. Statistical analysis to compare site categories was performed using Fisher's exact test.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Coliforms were found in none of the 13 wild sites, none of the 12 day hike sites, and only 3 of 18 backpacker sites (17%). In contrast, 14 of 20 sites (70%) with pack animal traffic yielded coliforms, and all 9 sites (100%) below the cattle-grazing areas grew coliforms. Differences between backpacker versus cattle or pack areas were significant, p <or= 0.05. All samples grew normal aquatic bacteria. Sites below cattle grazing and pack animal use tended to have more total heterotrophic bacteria.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Alpine wilderness water below cattle areas used by pack animals is at risk for containing coliform organisms. Water from wild, day hike, or backpack areas showed far less risk for coliforms.
authors.affiliation: Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA. rwderlet@ucdavis.edu
authors.forename: Robert W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Derlet
mesh_terms: D000822:Animal Husbandry; D000818:Animals; D000829:Animals, Domestic; D000835:Animals, Wild; D004755:Enterobacteriaceae / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000382:microbiology*; D006801:Humans; D007899:Leisure Activities; D009051:Mountaineering; D009505:Nevada; D018570:Risk Assessment; D014871:Water Microbiology; D014876:Water Pollution / Q000032:analysis*