title: Biogenic origin of polymetallic nodules from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Eastern Pacific Ocean: electron microscopic and EDX evidence.
abstract: Polymetallic/ferromanganese nodules (Mn-nodules) have been assigned a huge economic potential since they contain considerable concentrations of manganese, copper, nickel, iron, and cobalt. It has been assumed that they are formed by, besides hydrogenous, nonbiogenic processes, biogenic processes based on metabolic processes driven by microorganisms. In the present study, we applied the techniques of digital optical microscopy and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy to search for microorganisms in Mn-nodules. They were collected from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and are composed of Mn (23.9%), Cu (0.69%), Ni (1.02%), Fe (10.9%), and Co (0.29%). These Mn-nodules, between 2.3 and 4.8 cm, show a distinct lamination; they are composed of small-sized micronodules, 100 to 450 microm in size, which are bound together by an interstitial whitish material. In the micronodules, a dense accumulation of microorganisms/bacteria could be visualized. Only two morphotypes exist: (1) round-shaped cocci and (2) elongated rods. The cocci (diameter: approximately 3.5 microm) are arranged in bead-like chains, while the rods (approximately 2 x 0.4 microm) are arranged either as palisades or in a linear row. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses showed that the areas rich in microorganisms/bacteria are also rich in Mn, while in regions where no microorganisms are found, the element Si is dominant. We suggest that growth of the Mn-nodules starts with the formation of "micronodules." The formation of micronodules is assumed to be mediated by microorganisms. After accretion of biogenic and additional nonbiogenic minerals, the micronodules assemble to large nodules on the sea floor through additional inclusion of nonbiogenic material.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China. wxh0408@hotmail.com
authors.forename: Xiaohong
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Ute
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Schlossmacher
authors.forename: Matthias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wiens
authors.forename: Heinz C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Schröder
authors.forename: Werner E G
authors.initials: WE
authors.lastname: Müller
mesh_terms: D001419:Bacteria / Q000378:metabolism*; D017753:Ecosystem; D055593:Geological Phenomena; D008670:Metals / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000378:metabolism*; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D010140:Pacific Ocean
chemical_list: D008670:Metals