AZT: an old drug with new perspectives.
The science of antiviral research was well advanced when HIV/AIDS appeared as a major new virus disease in the early 1980s. The first effective antiviral compound (AZT, azidothymidine, zidovudine) was already among the library of compounds screened and was promptly reported to be a specific inhibitor of retroviruses, including HIV. Due to the pivotal role of AZT in HIV treatment, this review summarizes the most known effects -some of which are toxic side effects- induced by AZT a drug which is still used in the combined therapy of HIV-infected patients. Among the toxic side effects, a severe bone marrow toxicity manifested as anemia, neutropenia and siderosis, and caused by inhibition of heme and globin synthesis together with a general derangement of iron supply, have been reported. In this regard, we proved that while AZT and its monophosphorylated derivative AZTMP were unable to chelate iron, the triphosphate form AZTTP displayed a significant capacity to remove iron from transferrin. Moreover, we have previously demonstrated that AZT-exposed K562 cells showed an increase of transferrin receptors located on the cell membrane without affecting their biosynthesis, but slowing down their endocytotic pathway. Interestingly, literature data report the impairement of glycosylation reactions by AZT. Indeed, we have shown that AZT-treated K562 cells exhibited a reduced sialylation of proteins and lipids, and a strong inhibition of alpha,(2-->8) sialyltransferase activity while beta,(1-->4)galactosyltransferase and beta-galactosidase activities were significantly increased. These latter observations could be of clinical relevance since alterations of intracellular and cell surface carbohydrate expression and composition, often are associated with several diseases. However, contrarily to previous reports by other authors on AZT as an inhibitor of plant and bacterial toxins activity, we have demonstrated that AZT not only did not inhibit saporin toxicity, but even increased the cytotoxic activity of this plant toxin on K562 cells. Furthermore, the review enlightens the potential utilization of AZT as a tool in proteomics since in the recent years several genes responding to this drug have been identified in different cell lines. We have shown, for the first time, an over-expression of two proteins (PDI-A3 and sthatmin), and a full repression of two others (HSP-60 and SOD1) in AZT-exposed K562 cells. At present, we are investigating if the above reported alterations are a general feature of AZT-treatment of cultured cells, or they represent a peculiar characteristic of a specific cell line. Finally, the paper reviews a number of novel methodologies aimed at enhancing the AZT plasma levels and its bioavailability in all human organs in order to improve its therapeutic efficacy against HIV infection. These new possibilities, namely the AZT prodrug strategy, the AZT transdermal delivery and the targeted brain delivery, are yet not in use for humans but they are under experimental studies.
D'Andrea
Gabriele
G
Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technologies, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy.
Brisdelli
Fabrizia
F
Bozzi
Argante
A
D020168:ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1 / Q000235:genetics; D000279:Administration, Cutaneous; D000740:Anemia / Q000139:chemically induced; D000818:Animals; D019380:Anti-HIV Agents / Q000633:toxicity*; D001853:Bone Marrow / Q000187:drug effects; D041905:Erythroid Cells / Q000187:drug effects; D006031:Glycosylation; D006801:Humans; D000922:Immunotoxins / Q000494:pharmacology; D007501:Iron / Q000378:metabolism; D011355:Prodrugs / Q000494:pharmacology; D040901:Proteomics; D015215:Zidovudine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity*
D020168:ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1; D019380:Anti-HIV Agents; D000922:Immunotoxins; D011355:Prodrugs; D015215:Zidovudine; D007501:Iron