title: Identifying candidate genes affecting developmental time in Drosophila melanogaster: pervasive pleiotropy and gene-by-environment interaction.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Understanding the genetic architecture of ecologically relevant adaptive traits requires the contribution of developmental and evolutionary biology. The time to reach the age of reproduction is a complex life history trait commonly known as developmental time. In particular, in holometabolous insects that occupy ephemeral habitats, like fruit flies, the impact of developmental time on fitness is further exaggerated. The present work is one of the first systematic studies of the genetic basis of developmental time, in which we also evaluate the impact of environmental variation on the expression of the trait.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We analyzed 179 co-isogenic single P[GT1]-element insertion lines of Drosophila melanogaster to identify novel genes affecting developmental time in flies reared at 25 degrees C. Sixty percent of the lines showed a heterochronic phenotype, suggesting that a large number of genes affect this trait. Mutant lines for the genes Merlin and Karl showed the most extreme phenotypes exhibiting a developmental time reduction and increase, respectively, of over 2 days and 4 days relative to the control (a co-isogenic P-element insertion free line). In addition, a subset of 42 lines selected at random from the initial set of 179 lines was screened at 17 degrees C. Interestingly, the gene-by-environment interaction accounted for 52% of total phenotypic variance. Plastic reaction norms were found for a large number of developmental time candidate genes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We identified components of several integrated time-dependent pathways affecting egg-to-adult developmental time in Drosophila. At the same time, we also show that many heterochronic phenotypes may arise from changes in genes involved in several developmental mechanisms that do not explicitly control the timing of specific events. We also demonstrate that many developmental time genes have pleiotropic effects on several adult traits and that the action of most of them is sensitive to temperature during development. Taken together, our results stress the need to take into account the effect of environmental variation and the dynamics of gene interactions on the genetic architecture of this complex life-history trait.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina. jmensch@ege.fcen.uba.ar
authors.forename: Julián
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mensch
authors.forename: Nicolás
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Lavagnino
authors.forename: Valeria Paula
authors.initials: VP
authors.lastname: Carreira
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Massaldi
authors.forename: Esteban
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hasson
authors.forename: Juan José
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Fanara
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D029721:Drosophila Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D004331:Drosophila melanogaster / Q000235:genetics* / Q000254:growth & development*; D004777:Environment; D005260:Female; D018507:Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental; D050437:Genes, Developmental; D017344:Genes, Insect; D008297:Male; D016254:Mutagenesis, Insertional; D025581:Neurofibromin 2 / Q000235:genetics*; D010641:Phenotype; D013696:Temperature; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D029721:Drosophila Proteins; D025581:Neurofibromin 2; C099885:merlin, Drosophila