title: Pharmacological management of dyspnoea.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This paper reviews the current evidence for the pharmacological treatment of refractory symptomatic breathlessness in people with advanced life-limiting illnesses. The paper does not explore changes in function.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Oral and parenteral opioids reduce dyspnoea, and data continue to add to this indication for these drugs. Optimal dosing of opioids is being refined. Interest in other medications continues to be explored - benzodiazepines, nebulised frusemide, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors - but their role in day-to-day clinical practice is not defined.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Low-dose regular opioids, especially sustained-release preparations, have a key role in the pharmacological management of dyspnoea when titrated for effect, and may be used regularly across a range of underlying pathophysiologies. Key research questions for all the current symptomatic pharmacological agents used in refractory dyspnoea remain.
authors.affiliation: Department of Palliative and Supportive Services, Division of Medicine, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia. david.currow@rgh.sa.gov.au
authors.forename: David C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Currow
authors.forename: Amy P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Abernethy
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001569:Benzodiazepines / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004333:Drug Administration Routes; D004417:Dyspnea / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000209:etiology; D005541:Forced Expiratory Volume; D005665:Furosemide / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D029424:Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D017367:Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D001569:Benzodiazepines; D005665:Furosemide; D017367:Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors