title: Perceptions of race/ethnicity-based discrimination: a review of measures and evaluation of their usefulness for the health care setting.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  To assess discrimination in health care, reliable, valid, and comprehensive measures of racism/discrimination are needed.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review literature on measures of perceived race/ethnicity-based discrimination and evaluate their characteristics and usefulness in assessing discrimination from health care providers.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature review of measures of perceived race/ethnicity-based discrimination (1966-2007), using MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Social Science Citation Index.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified 34 measures of racism/discrimination; 16 specifically assessed dynamics in the health care setting. Few measures were theoretically based; most assessed only general dimensions of racism and focused specifically on the experiences of African American patients. Acceptable psychometric properties were documented for about half of the instruments.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Additional measures are needed for detailed assessments of perceived discrimination in the health care setting; they should be relevant for a wide variety of racial/ethnic groups, and they must assess how racism/discrimination affects health care decision making and treatments offered.
authors.affiliation: Center for Health Quality, Outcomes and Economic Research (a VA Health Services Research and Development National Center for Excellence), Bedford VA Medical Center, Bedford, MA, USA. nkressin@bu.edu
authors.forename: Nancy R
authors.initials: NR
authors.lastname: Kressin
authors.forename: Kristal L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Raymond
authors.forename: Meredith
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Manze
mesh_terms: D001294:Attitude to Health / Q000208:ethnology*; D005006:Ethnicity / Q000523:psychology*; D006297:Health Services Accessibility; D054625:Healthcare Disparities; D006801:Humans; D011287:Prejudice; D044469:Racial Groups / Q000523:psychology*; D014481:United States