title: Three-dimensional visualization of cultural clusters in the 1878 yellow fever epidemic of New Orleans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  An epidemic may exhibit different spatial patterns with a change in geographic scale, with each scale having different conduits and impediments to disease spread. Mapping disease at each of these scales often reveals different cluster patterns. This paper will consider this change of geographic scale in an analysis of yellow fever deaths for New Orleans in 1878. Global clustering for the whole city, will be followed by a focus on the French Quarter, then clusters of that area, and finally street-level patterns of a single cluster. The three-dimensional visualization capabilities of a GIS will be used as part of a cluster creation process that incorporates physical buildings in calculating mortality-to-mortality distance. Including nativity of the deceased will also capture cultural connection.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Twenty-two yellow fever clusters were identified for the French Quarter. These generally mirror the results of other global cluster and density surfaces created for the entire epidemic in New Orleans. However, the addition of building-distance, and disease specific time frame between deaths reveal that disease spread contains a cultural component. Same nativity mortality clusters emerge in a similar time frame irrespective of proximity. Italian nativity mortalities were far more densely grouped than any of the other cohorts. A final examination of mortalities for one of the nativity clusters reveals that further sub-division is present, and that this pattern would only be revealed at this scale (street level) of investigation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Disease spread in an epidemic is complex resulting from a combination of geographic distance, geographic distance with specific connection to the built environment, disease-specific time frame between deaths, impediments such as herd immunity, and social or cultural connection. This research has shown that the importance of cultural connection may be more important than simple proximity, which in turn might mean traditional quarantine measures should be re-evaluated.
authors: GIS Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Southern California, Kaprielian Hall (KAP), Room 416, 3620 South Vermont Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0255, USA. ajcurtis@usc.edu
authors: Andrew J
authors: AJ
authors: Curtis
mesh_terms: D016000:Cluster Analysis; D003466:Cultural Characteristics; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D040362:Geographic Information Systems; D049672:History, 19th Century; D006801:Humans; D055820:New Orleans / Q000453:epidemiology; D015004:Yellow Fever / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000266:history*