Extracting key information from historical data to quantify the transmission dynamics of smallpox.
BACKGROUND
Quantification of the transmission dynamics of smallpox is crucial for optimizing intervention strategies in the event of a bioterrorist attack. This article reviews basic methods and findings in mathematical and statistical studies of smallpox which estimate key transmission parameters from historical data.


RESULTS
First, critically important aspects in extracting key information from historical data are briefly summarized. We mention different sources of heterogeneity and potential pitfalls in utilizing historical records. Second, we discuss how smallpox spreads in the absence of interventions and how the optimal timing of quarantine and isolation measures can be determined. Case studies demonstrate the following. (1) The upper confidence limit of the 99th percentile of the incubation period is 22.2 days, suggesting that quarantine should last 23 days. (2) The highest frequency (61.8%) of secondary transmissions occurs 3-5 days after onset of fever so that infected individuals should be isolated before the appearance of rash. (3) The U-shaped age-specific case fatality implies a vulnerability of infants and elderly among non-immune individuals. Estimates of the transmission potential are subsequently reviewed, followed by an assessment of vaccination effects and of the expected effectiveness of interventions.


CONCLUSIONS
Current debates on bio-terrorism preparedness indicate that public health decision making must account for the complex interplay and balance between vaccination strategies and other public health measures (e.g. case isolation and contact tracing) taking into account the frequency of adverse events to vaccination. In this review, we summarize what has already been clarified and point out needs to analyze previous smallpox outbreaks systematically.
Nishiura
Hiroshi
H
Theoretical Epidemiology, University of Utrecht, Yalelaan 7, 3584CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands. H.Nishiura@uu.nl
Brockmann
Stefan O
SO
Eichner
Martin
M
D000818:Animals; D023482:Bioterrorism / Q000266:history / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D004196:Disease Outbreaks / Q000266:history / Q000517:prevention & control*; D005060:Europe / Q000453:epidemiology; D006663:Historiography; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D006801:Humans; D012899:Smallpox / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000266:history / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission*; D012900:Smallpox Vaccine / Q000266:history; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
D012900:Smallpox Vaccine