title: Methods for sampling of airborne viruses.
abstract: To better understand the underlying mechanisms of aerovirology, accurate sampling of airborne viruses is fundamental. The sampling instruments commonly used in aerobiology have also been used to recover viruses suspended in the air. We reviewed over 100 papers to evaluate the methods currently used for viral aerosol sampling. Differentiating infections caused by direct contact from those caused by airborne dissemination can be a very demanding task given the wide variety of sources of viral aerosols. While epidemiological data can help to determine the source of the contamination, direct data obtained from air samples can provide very useful information for risk assessment purposes. Many types of samplers have been used over the years, including liquid impingers, solid impactors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, and many others. The efficiencies of these samplers depend on a variety of environmental and methodological factors that can affect the integrity of the virus structure. The aerodynamic size distribution of the aerosol also has a direct effect on sampler efficiency. Viral aerosols can be studied under controlled laboratory conditions, using biological or nonbiological tracers and surrogate viruses, which are also discussed in this review. Lastly, general recommendations are made regarding future studies on the sampling of airborne viruses.
authors.affiliation: Centre de Recherche, Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie, 2725 Chemin Ste.-Foy, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada G1V 4G5.
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Verreault
authors.forename: Sylvain
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Moineau
authors.forename: Caroline
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Duchaine
mesh_terms: D000336:Aerosols / Q000032:analysis*; D000391:Air Microbiology; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis / Q000302:isolation & purification; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D004867:Equipment Design / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D014773:Virology / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D014777:Virus Diseases / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D014780:Viruses / Q000302:isolation & purification*
chemical_list: D000336:Aerosols; D000393:Air Pollutants
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1976 May;31(5):705-10
references.pmid: 1275492
references.citation: J Am Dent Assoc. 1979 Sep;99(3):465-7
references.pmid: 288780
references.citation: Rev Sci Tech. 1991 Sep;10(3):733-48
references.pmid: 1782426
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2005;99(6):1422-34
references.pmid: 16313415
references.citation: Br J Ind Med. 1957 Oct;14(4):287-97
references.pmid: 13471876
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1941 Sep;42(3):321-44
references.pmid: 16560455
references.citation: JAMA. 1985 Mar 15;253(11):1574-7
references.pmid: 3974036
references.citation: Br J Exp Pathol. 1966 Oct;47(5):453-65
references.pmid: 4288602
references.citation: J Virol Methods. 1996 Jan;56(1):115-8
references.pmid: 8690759
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2005 Apr 16;156(16):501-4
references.pmid: 15833966
references.citation: Vet Rec. 1983 Nov 19;113(21):490-4
references.pmid: 6316624
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1985 Feb;49(2):289-93
references.pmid: 2984990
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982 Oct;44(4):903-8
references.pmid: 7149719
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1969 Sep;67(3):387-99
references.pmid: 4897540
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978 Feb;35(2):290-6
references.pmid: 345967
references.citation: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 1962;28:221-33
references.pmid: 13953681
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1965 Nov;13(6):899-908
references.pmid: 5866038
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1982 Nov;33(3):384-5
references.pmid: 6296955
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2000 Jun;124(3):481-7
references.pmid: 10982072
references.citation: Indoor Air. 2005 Apr;15(2):83-95
references.pmid: 15737151
references.citation: Arch Gesamte Virusforsch. 1965;16:97-102
references.pmid: 14322937
references.citation: Vet J. 2007 Jul;174(1):42-53
references.pmid: 16904353
references.citation: Ann Occup Hyg. 2007 Mar;51(2):143-51
references.pmid: 17041245
references.citation: Can J Microbiol. 1985 Nov;31(11):1058-61
references.pmid: 3004682
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1971 Nov;22(5):899-903
references.pmid: 5132095
references.citation: Can J Microbiol. 1985 Aug;31(8):681-5
references.pmid: 3000566
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1970 Dec;68(4):511-7
references.pmid: 4321593
references.citation: J Med Microbiol. 2006 Jun;55(Pt 6):785-790
references.pmid: 16687600
references.citation: Vet Res. 2007 Jan-Feb;38(1):81-93
references.pmid: 17156739
references.citation: Rev Infect Dis. 1989 May-Jun;11(3):494-7
references.pmid: 2665004
references.citation: J Aerosol Sci. 2005 May-Jun;36(5):593-607
references.pmid: 32287372
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 1968 May;87(3):567-77
references.pmid: 4968344
references.citation: J Vet Diagn Invest. 2005 Mar;17(2):198-200
references.pmid: 15825506
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1984 Apr;47(4):879-81
references.pmid: 6326670
references.citation: Am J Vet Res. 1990 Mar;51(3):331-3
references.pmid: 2156471
references.citation: Lab Anim. 2006 Jul;40(3):247-60
references.pmid: 16803642
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1996 May;60(3):228-33
references.pmid: 8735512
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1973 Jun;71(2):325-39
references.pmid: 4515881
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1966 May;14(3):361-4
references.pmid: 4291235
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004 Apr 15;224(8):1261-8
references.pmid: 15112774
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1969 Nov;18(5):893-6
references.pmid: 4313171
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2005;98(2):397-405
references.pmid: 15659194
references.citation: Nature. 1960 Oct 29;188:430-1
references.pmid: 13713229
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1992 Mar;52(2):182-6
references.pmid: 1316629
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Jul;72(7):4811-8
references.pmid: 16820475
references.citation: Wildl Dis. 1968 Apr;4(2):37-40
references.pmid: 4870805
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Aug;38(8):2982-4
references.pmid: 10921963
references.citation: J Virol Methods. 1987 Nov;18(2-3):87-106
references.pmid: 2828403
references.citation: Arch Virol. 1976;51(4):263-73
references.pmid: 987765
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2005;99(2):339-47
references.pmid: 16033465
references.citation: Can J Comp Med. 1979 Apr;43(2):158-67
references.pmid: 227551
references.citation: Environ Sci Technol. 2005 Mar 15;39(6):1584-90
references.pmid: 15819213
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2007 Oct;135(7):1077-90
references.pmid: 17346359
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1961 Dec;59:479-86
references.pmid: 13904777
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1971 Mar;21(3):447-50
references.pmid: 5553282
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 22;350(17):1731-9
references.pmid: 15102999
references.citation: Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998 Dec;19(12):918-23
references.pmid: 9872529
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 2000 Jun;68(3):217-22
references.pmid: 10877966
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1952 Mar;50(1):53-68
references.pmid: 14908062
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1970 Jun;68(2):273-82
references.pmid: 4317107
references.citation: AIHAJ. 2000 Jan-Feb;61(1):56-63
references.pmid: 10772615
references.citation: Bacteriol Rev. 1966 Sep;30(3):576-88
references.pmid: 5917337
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1985 Nov;50(5):1181-6
references.pmid: 3004329
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1994 Jan;169(1):91-4
references.pmid: 8277202
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2004 Mar 15;189(6):1009-12
references.pmid: 14999603
references.citation: Vet J. 2008 Sep;177(3):425-8
references.pmid: 17629524
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1964 Nov;12:479-82
references.pmid: 14239578
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007 Sep;73(18):5760-6
references.pmid: 17644645
references.citation: Indoor Air. 2006 Oct;16(5):335-47
references.pmid: 16948710
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Aug;131(1):727-36
references.pmid: 12948373
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2005 Sep;86(Pt 9):2577-2584
references.pmid: 16099917
references.citation: J Occup Environ Hyg. 2007 May;4(5):321-31
references.pmid: 17365506
references.citation: Lett Appl Microbiol. 1995 Sep;21(3):207-9
references.pmid: 7576510
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1969 Dec;67(4):671-7
references.pmid: 4311577
references.citation: J Environ Monit. 2006 Oct;8(10):1006-13
references.pmid: 17240906
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1968 Nov;16(11):1811-3
references.pmid: 4302283
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2005 May 1;40(9):1237-43
references.pmid: 15825024
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1970 Apr;19(4):624-8
references.pmid: 4911441
references.citation: Bacteriol Rev. 1966 Sep;30(3):571-2
references.pmid: 4958517
references.citation: Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994 May;17(2):91-8
references.pmid: 7924249
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1969 Nov;18(5):880-2
references.pmid: 4984205
references.citation: Can J Vet Res. 1990 Oct;54(4):465-8
references.pmid: 2174297
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1974 Jan;27(1):59-65
references.pmid: 4358862
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1973 Sep;26(3):252-7
references.pmid: 4584573
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2004 Mar 6;154(10):294-7
references.pmid: 15053136
references.citation: Environ Microbiol. 2007 Apr;9(4):992-1000
references.pmid: 17359271
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1961 Mar;9:106-7
references.pmid: 13754875
references.citation: Science. 1940 Feb 16;91(2355):172-4
references.pmid: 17807419
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 1973 Jan;18(1):83-6
references.pmid: 4352957
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2002 Aug;83(Pt 8):1915-1923
references.pmid: 12124455
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982 Jan;43(1):28-38
references.pmid: 7055376
references.citation: J Hosp Infect. 2000 Sep;46(1):61-6
references.pmid: 11023725
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2002 Apr;128(2):301-12
references.pmid: 12002549
references.citation: BMC Public Health. 2003 Jan 13;3:5
references.pmid: 12525263
references.citation: Science. 1936 Jul 17;84(2168):68-9
references.pmid: 17807363
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1969 May;17(5):685-9
references.pmid: 4891719
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2003 Dec 18;349(25):2416-22
references.pmid: 14681507
references.citation: Health Lab Sci. 1976 Oct;13(4):233-7
references.pmid: 789291
references.citation: Bull World Health Organ. 1965;33(5):615-22
references.pmid: 4285461
references.citation: Science. 1948 May 7;107(2784):474-5
references.pmid: 17760007
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 1969 Jun;4(4):473-7
references.pmid: 5803270
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 1971 Mar;10(3):209-20
references.pmid: 4324730
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1966 Nov;14(6):888-91
references.pmid: 16349691
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2005 Oct;133(5):767-83
references.pmid: 16181495
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1973 Aug;26(2):146-8
references.pmid: 4355259
references.citation: Am J Hyg. 1958 Jul;68(1):85-93
references.pmid: 13559215
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1974 May;27(5):834-7
references.pmid: 4598220
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1986 Jul;41(1):45-9
references.pmid: 3020658
references.citation: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004 Jun 1;169(11):1187-90
references.pmid: 14754759
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 1967 May;85(3):479-85
references.pmid: 4960866
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1974 Aug;73(1):1-7
references.pmid: 4371586
references.citation: Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2000 Nov;(98):5-86; discussion 87-94
references.pmid: 11918089
references.citation: Can J Comp Med. 1979 Jul;43(3):305-12
references.pmid: 226247
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1979 Oct;38(4):688-93
references.pmid: 231937
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1961 Mar;9:103-5
references.pmid: 13719328
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1977 Apr;78(2):189-98
references.pmid: 265341
references.citation: J Hosp Infect. 2005 Nov;61(3):242-7
references.pmid: 16009462
references.citation: Arch Environ Health. 1964 Jul;9:58-60
references.pmid: 14160103
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1967 Jan;15(1):35-42
references.pmid: 4291670
references.citation: Bull World Health Organ. 1961;25:63-7
references.pmid: 14472202
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1961 Dec;59:487-96
references.pmid: 14476240
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2002 Nov 16;151(20):593-600
references.pmid: 12463534
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2002 Jun 29;150(26):804-8
references.pmid: 12120923
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1969 Feb;17(2):256-61
references.pmid: 5775910
references.citation: Can J Comp Med. 1979 Jul;43(3):295-304
references.pmid: 226246
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 1985 Dec;66 ( Pt 12):2743-8
references.pmid: 2999318
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1978 Aug;81(1):9-13
references.pmid: 211163
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1980 Nov;30(2):397-401
references.pmid: 6254888
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 1997 Feb;118(1):71-5
references.pmid: 9042037
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 1999 Apr 19;66(3):197-207
references.pmid: 10227122
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 May 1;191(9):1472-7
references.pmid: 15809906
references.citation: J Hyg (Lond). 1974 Feb;72(1):61-5
references.pmid: 4361501
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1987 Nov;43(3):339-46
references.pmid: 2832913
references.citation: Rev Sci Tech. 2002 Dec;21(3):569-75
references.pmid: 12523697
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 22;350(17):1710-2
references.pmid: 15102996