title: Occurrence and sources of perfluorinated surfactants in rivers in Japan.
abstract: We analyzed perfluorinated surfactants (PFSs) in 20 river samples and 5 wastewater secondary effluent samples in Japan to reveal their occurrence and sources. Nine PFS species were determined: perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctane sulfonamide (FOSA), perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorononanoate (PFNA), perfluorodecanoate (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoate (PFUA), perfluorododecanoate (PFDDA), and perfluorotridecanoate (PFTDA). PFSs were detected in all rivers, revealing nationwide contamination of rivers. In particular, 11 out of 20 river samples exceeded New Jersey guidance for PFOA in drinking water (40 ng/L). PFOS, PFHpA, PFOA, and PFNA were major species in Japan. Concentrations of PFOS, PFHpA, and PFNA in rivers were strongly correlated with population density, suggesting that the chemicals were derived from urban activities. PFOA showed a significant but weak correlation. We used crotamiton, a marker of sewage effluent, for further source analysis. Concentrations of PFOS, PFHpA, and PFNAwere strongly correlated with those of crotamiton, and plots of secondary effluents fell near the regression lines of rivers, indicating that the PFOS, PFHpA, and PFNA in rivers were derived from sewage effluent. On the other hand, PFOA was found at remarkably high levels (54-192 ng/L) in seven river samples containing low levels of crotamiton, suggesting that it was derived from nonsewage point sources, as well as sewage effluent. The total fluxes of sewage-derived PFOS, PFHpA, PFOA, and PFNA from Japan were estimated to be 3.6, 2.6, 5.6, and 2.6 t/year, respectively. This is the first report to identify PFOA in several rivers, derived from nonsewage point sources, by using a marker of sewage effluent.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry (LOG), Institute of Symbiotic Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan.
authors.forename: Michio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Murakami
authors.forename: Eiji
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Imamura
authors.forename: Hiroyuki
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Shinohara
authors.forename: Kentaro
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kiri
authors.forename: Yuki
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Muramatsu
authors.forename: Arata
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Harada
authors.forename: Hideshige
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Takada
mesh_terms: D005466:Fluorocarbons / Q000032:analysis*; D005618:Fresh Water; D007564:Japan; D011786:Quality Control; D013501:Surface-Active Agents / Q000032:analysis*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D005466:Fluorocarbons; D013501:Surface-Active Agents; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical