title: Acute subdural hematoma in pigs: role of volume on multiparametric neuromonitoring and histology.
abstract: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often complicated by acute subdural hemorrhage (ASDH) with a high mortality rate. The pathophysiological mechanisms behind such an injury type and the contribution of blood to the extent of an injury remain poorly understood. Therefore, the goals of this study were to establish a porcine ASDH model in order to investigate pathomechanisms of ASDH and to compare effects induced by blood or sheer volume. Thus, we infused 2, 5, and 9 mL of blood (up to 15% of intracranial volume), and we compared a 5-mL blood and paraffin oil volume to separate out effects of extravasated blood on brain tissue. An extended neuromonitoring was applied that lasted up to 12 h after injury and included intracranial pressure (ICP), cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), tissue oxygen concentration (ptiO(2)), biochemical markers (glutamate, lactate), somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP), brain water content, and histological assessment (Lesion Index [LI]). Volume-dependent changes were detected mainly during the first hours after injury. ICP increased to significant levels (p < 0.05) of 36.89 +/- 1.59, 15.52 +/- 0.48, and 11.25 +/- 0.35 mm Hg after 9, 5, and 2 mL of subdural blood, respectively (sham, 4.85 +/- 0.06 mm Hg). The ptiO(2) dropped drastically after 9 mL of subdural blood without recovery in both hemispheres to below 20% of baseline, but was affected little after 2 and 5 mL in the acute monitoring period (maximal drop to 71% of baseline). Later, 5 mL of blood led to a significant increase of ptiO(2) compared to 2 mL ipsilaterally (p < 0.05). Glutamate and lactate showed a comparable pattern with a long-lasting increase after 9 mL of blood and short-lasting changes after 2 and 5 mL. The two smaller volumes caused an increased brain swelling (2 mL, 80.60 +/- 0.34%; 5 mL, 81.20 +/- 0.66%; p < 0.05 vs. sham), a significant LI (sham, 6.4 +/- 1.4; 2 mL, 30.0 +/- 0.95; 5 mL, 32.1 +/- 1.2; p < 0.05 vs. sham), and a reduced SEP amplitude (5 mL, p < 0.05 vs. baseline) at the end of the experiment. A 9-mL led to herniation during the experiment causing dramatical brain swelling and acute histological damage. Comparison of blood volume with paraffin oil showed no significance, indicating that volume alone determines the acute pathophysiological processes leading to a rapidly developing histological damage. Additional effects due to blood contact with brain tissue (e.g., inflammation) may be detected only at later time points (>12 h).
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neurosurgical Pathophysiology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
authors.forename: Ralph
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Timaru-Kast
authors.forename: Anke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Meissner
authors.forename: Axel
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Heimann
authors.forename: Bernd
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Hoelper
authors.forename: Oliver
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Kempski
authors.forename: Beat
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Alessandri
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D001929:Brain Edema / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D001930:Brain Injuries / Q000150:complications* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D005073:Evoked Potentials, Somatosensory; D018698:Glutamic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D020199:Hematoma, Subdural, Acute / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*; D007427:Intracranial Pressure; D019344:Lactic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D010100:Oxygen / Q000032:analysis; D010101:Oxygen Consumption / Q000502:physiology; D013552:Swine
chemical_list: D019344:Lactic Acid; D018698:Glutamic Acid; D010100:Oxygen