title: Direct and indirect effects of a potential aquatic contaminant on grazer-algae interactions.
abstract: Contaminants have direct, harmful effects across multiple ecological scales, including the individual, the community, and the ecosystem levels. Less, however, is known about how indirect effects of contaminants on consumer physiology or behavior might alter community interactions or ecosystem processes. We examined whether a potential aquatic contaminant, an ionic liquid, can indirectly alter benthic algal biomass and primary production through direct effects on herbivorous snails. Ionic liquids are nonvolatile organic salts being considered as an environmentally friendly potential replacement for volatile organic compounds in industry. In two greenhouse experiments, we factorially crossed four concentrations of 1-N-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (bmimBr; experiment 1: 0 or 10 mg/L; experiment 2: 0, 1, or 100 mg/L) with the presence or absence of the snail Physa acuta in aquatic mesocosms. Experimental results were weighted by their respective control (no bmimBr or P. acuta) and combined for statistical analysis. When both bmimBr and snails were present, chlorophyll a abundance and algal biovolume were higher than would be expected if both factors acted additively. In addition, snail growth rates, relative to those of controls, declined by 41 to 101% at 10 and 100 mg/L of bmimBr. Taken together, these two results suggest that snails were less efficient grazers in the presence of bmimBr, resulting in release of algae from the grazer control. Snails stimulated periphyton primary production in the absence, but not in the presence, of bmimBr, suggesting that bmimBr also can indirectly alter ecosystem function. These findings suggest that sublethal contaminant levels can negatively impact communities and ecosystem processes via complex interactions, and they provide baseline information regarding the potential effects of an emergent industrial chemical on aquatic systems.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556-0369, USA. mevanswh@uark.edu
authors.forename: Michelle A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Evans-White
authors.forename: Gary A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Lamberti
mesh_terms: D056890:Eukaryota / Q000187:drug effects*; D007093:Imidazoles / Q000633:toxicity*; D055549:Volatile Organic Compounds / Q000633:toxicity*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D007093:Imidazoles; D055549:Volatile Organic Compounds; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; C502841:1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride