title: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: adverse effects and their prevention.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To discuss nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), their history, development, mode of action, toxicities, strategies for the prevention of toxicity, and future developments.
  
  
  METHODS
  Medline search for articles published up to 2007, using the keywords acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin, NSAIDs, cyclooxygenase 2, adverse effects, ulcer, and cardiovascular.
  
  
  RESULTS
  NSAIDs are 1 of the oldest, most successful drugs known to modern medicine. They are effective for alleviating pain, fever, and inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. Aspirin, by its irreversible inhibition of blood platelet function, is also effective in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. NSAIDs may cause gastrointestinal ulcers, serious cardiovascular events, hypertension, acute renal failure, and worsening of preexisting heart failure. These adverse effects may be prevented by limiting NSAID dosage and duration and by performing individual risk assessments and treating patients accordingly. Those at risk for gastroduodenal ulcers may be treated with concomitant proton-pump inhibitors, misoprostol and/or COX-2 selective NSAIDs. Those at risk for cardiovascular events may be treated with naproxen and a proton-pump inhibitor or misoprostol, but should best avoid NSAID use altogether.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Physicians should always prescribe the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible time and must take into account both the gastrointestinal and the cardiovascular risks of individual patients when prescribing NSAIDs.
authors.affiliation: Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medisch Spectrum Twente Hospital Group and University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. H.Vonkeman@ziekenhuis-mst.nl
authors.forename: Harald E
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Vonkeman
authors.forename: Mart A F J
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: van de Laar
mesh_terms: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D001241:Aspirin / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D017060:Patient Satisfaction; D010437:Peptic Ulcer / Q000139:chemically induced*; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D001241:Aspirin