Update on blepharospasm: report from the BEBRF International Workshop.
This review updates understanding and research on blepharospasm, a subtype of focal dystonia. Topics covered include clinical aspects, pathology, pathophysiology, animal models, dry eye, photophobia, epidemiology, genetics, and treatment. Blepharospasm should be differentiated from apraxia of eyelid opening. New insights into pathology and pathophysiology are derived from different types of imaging, including magnetic resonance studies. Physiologic studies indicate increased plasticity and trigeminal sensitization. While botulinum neurotoxin injections are the mainstay of therapy, other therapies are on the horizon.
Hallett
Mark
M
Human Motor Control Section, NINDS, NIH, 10 Center Drive MSC 1428, Bethesda, MD 20892-1428, USA. hallettm@ninds.nih.gov
Evinger
Craig
C
Jankovic
Joseph
J
Stacy
Mark
M
D000818:Animals; D001072:Apraxias / Q000503:physiopathology; D001764:Blepharospasm / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D020821:Dystonic Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology; D004493:Education; D006801:Humans; D009801:Oculomotor Muscles / Q000503:physiopathology; D020795:Photophobia / Q000503:physiopathology