title: Design of a randomised controlled trial on immune effects of acidic and neutral oligosaccharides in the nutrition of preterm infants: carrot study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Prevention of serious infections in preterm infants is a challenge, since prematurity and low birth weight often requires many interventions and high utility of devices. Furthermore, the possibility to administer enteral nutrition is limited due to immaturity of the gastrointestinal tract in the presence of a developing immune system. In combination with delayed intestinal bacterial colonisation compared with term infants, this may increase the risk for serious infections. Acidic and neutral oligosaccharides play an important role in the development of the immune system, intestinal bacterial colonisation and functional integrity of the gut. This trial aims to determine the effect of enteral supplementation of acidic and neutral oligosaccharides on infectious morbidity (primary outcome), immune response to immunizations, feeding tolerance and short-term and long-term outcome in preterm infants. In addition, an attempt is made to elucidate the role of acidic and neutral oligosaccharides in postnatal modulation of the immune response and postnatal adaptation of the gut.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a double-blind placebo controlled randomised trial, 120 preterm infants (gestational age <32 weeks and/or birth weight <1500 gram) are randomly allocated to receive enteral acidic and neutral oligosaccharides supplementation (20%/80%) or placebo supplementation (maltodextrin) between day 3 and 30 of life. Primary outcome is infectious morbidity (defined as the incidence of serious infections). The role of acidic and neutral oligosaccharides in modulation of the immune response is investigated by determining the immune response to DTaP-IPV-Hib(-HBV)+PCV7 immunizations, plasma cytokine concentrations, faecal Calprotectin and IL-8. The effect of enteral acidic and neutral oligosaccharides supplementation on postnatal adaptation of the gut is investigated by measuring feeding tolerance, intestinal permeability, intestinal viscosity, and determining intestinal microflora. Furthermore, short-term and long-term outcome are evaluated.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Especially preterm infants, who are at increased risk for serious infections, may benefit from supplementation of prebiotics. Most studies with prebiotics only focus on the colonisation of the intestinal microflora. However, the pathways how prebiotics may influence the immune system are not yet fully understood. Studying the immune modulatory effects is complex because of the multicausal risk of infections in preterm infants. The combination of neutral oligosaccharides with acidic oligosaccharides may have an increased beneficial effect on the immune system. Increased insight in the effects of prebiotics on the developing immune system may help to decrease the (infectious) morbidity and mortality in preterm infants.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN16211826.
authors.affiliation: Department of Paediatrics, Division of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. e.westerbeek@vumc.nl
authors.forename: Elisabeth A M
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Westerbeek
authors.forename: Ruurd M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: van Elburg
authors.forename: Anemone
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: van den Berg
authors.forename: Jolice
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: van den Berg
authors.forename: Jos W R
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Twisk
authors.forename: Willem P F
authors.initials: WP
authors.lastname: Fetter
authors.forename: Harrie N
authors.initials: HN
authors.lastname: Lafeber
mesh_terms: D016207:Cytokines / Q000097:blood; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D004750:Enteral Nutrition / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D005772:Gastrointestinal Transit / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D007109:Immunity / Q000187:drug effects*; D007227:Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007234:Infant, Premature / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000276:immunology / Q000502:physiology; D016209:Interleukin-8 / Q000097:blood; D007408:Intestinal Absorption / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D039841:Leukocyte L1 Antigen Complex / Q000032:analysis; D008297:Male; D009844:Oligosaccharides / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D010919:Placebos; D013997:Time Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D016209:Interleukin-8; D039841:Leukocyte L1 Antigen Complex; D009844:Oligosaccharides; D010919:Placebos