title: Growth of severely hypoplastic phalanges and metacarpals in symbrachydactyly: an experimental study in mice.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Severely hypoplastic phalanges and metacarpals in symbrachydactyly are often associated with a delay or failure of primary ossification evident by radiography at birth. However, little is known about the ossification pattern and further growth of severely hypoplastic bones in symbrachydactyly. To clarify this mechanism, we observed development during ossification of the hypoplastic phalanges in brachypodism mice (which carry functional null mutations of growth differentiation factor 5 and exhibit hypoplastic phalanges) as a model of the bone hypoplasia in symbrachydactyly.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forelimbs of wild-type and brachypodism mice from embryonic day 16.5 to 21 days after birth were sectioned. We used radiography to examine the progression of ossification; safranin O fast green-iron hematoxylin staining and in situ hybridization for type II collagen to demonstrate cartilage; the transferase-mediated nick end-labeling assay to identify apoptosis; and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining to demonstrate osteoclastic activity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In brachypodism mice, radiography showed markedly delayed ossification of the proximal phalanges in comparison with wild-type mice. Safranin O staining and type II collagen in situ hybridization showed that the cartilage anlagen of the proximal phalanges were extremely small, with diffuse endochondral ossification throughout, resulting in lack of growth plate and chondroepiphysis formation. Apoptotic cells were present under the perichondrium on the plantar side of the proximal phalanges from day 7 after birth and had spread randomly by day 14. Diffuse osteoclastic activity was evident throughout the proximal phalanges from days 7 to 14 after birth.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results indicate that severely hypoplastic proximal phalanges in brachypodism mice, although showing an endochondral ossification pattern, lack a growth plate and have no potential for secondary growth. These findings may be relevant to the treatment of symbrachydactyly with severely hypoplastic bones, which are not evident radiographically at birth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Yamagata University School of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan.
authors.forename: Yumiko
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Kanauchi
authors.forename: Masatoshi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Takahara
authors.forename: Mikio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Harada
authors.forename: Toshihiko
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Ogino
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis; D002358:Cartilage, Articular / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D019902:Chondrocytes / Q000473:pathology; D005552:Forelimb / Q000002:abnormalities / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology; D050279:Metacarpal Bones / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology; D051379:Mice; D008817:Mice, Mutant Strains; D010010:Osteoclasts / Q000378:metabolism; D010012:Osteogenesis; D013576:Syndactyly / Q000473:pathology*; D050277:Toe Phalanges / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology