title: Analgo-sedation of patients with burns outside the operating room.
abstract: Following the initial resuscitation of burn patients, the pain experienced may be divided into a 'background' pain and a 'breakthrough' pain associated with painful procedures. While background pain may be treated with intravenous opioids via continuous infusion or patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) and/or less potent oral opioids, breakthrough pain may be treated with a variety of interventions. The aim is to reduce patient anxiety, improve analgesia and ensure immobilization when required. Untreated pain and improper sedation may result in psychological distress such as post-traumatic stress disorder, major depression or delirium. This review summarizes recent developments and current techniques in sedation and analgesia in non-intubated adult burn patients during painful procedures performed outside the operating room (e.g. staple removal, wound-dressing, bathing). Current techniques of sedation and analgesia include different approaches, from a slight increase in background pain therapy (e.g. morphine PCA) to PCA with rapid-onset opioids, to multimodal drug combinations, nitrous oxide, regional blocks, or non-pharmacological approaches such as hypnosis and virtual reality. The most reliable way to administer drugs is intravenously. Fast-acting opioids can be combined with ketamine, propofol or benzodiazepines. Adjuvant drugs such as clonidine or NSAIDs and paracetamol (acetaminophen) have also been used. Patients receiving ketamine will usually maintain spontaneous breathing. This is an important feature in patients who are continuously turned during wound dressing procedures and where analgo-sedation is often performed by practitioners who are not specialists in anaesthesiology. Drugs are given in small boluses or by patient-controlled sedation, which is titrated to effect, according to sedation and pain scales. Patient-controlled infusion with propofol has also been used. However, we must bear in mind that burn patients often show an altered pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic response to drugs as a result of altered haemodynamics, protein binding and/or increased extracellular fluid volume, and possible changes in glomerular filtration. Because sedation and analgesia can range from minimal sedation (anxiolysis) to general anaesthesia, sedative and analgesic agents should always be administered by designated trained practitioners and not by the person performing the procedure. At least one individual who is capable of establishing a patent airway and positive pressure ventilation, as well as someone who can call for additional assistance, should always be present whenever analgo-sedation is administered. Oxygen should be routinely delivered during sedation. Blood pressure and continuous ECG monitoring should be carried out whenever possible, even if a patient is undergoing bathing or other procedures that may limit monitoring of vital pulse-oximetry parameters.
authors.affiliation: Intensive Care Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera CTO-CRF-ICORMA, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Cesare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Gregoretti
authors.forename: Daniela
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Decaroli
authors.forename: Quirino
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Piacevoli
authors.forename: Alice
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mistretta
authors.forename: Nicoletta
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Barzaghi
authors.forename: Nicola
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Luxardo
authors.forename: Irene
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Tosetti
authors.forename: Luisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tedeschi
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Burbi
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Navalesi
authors.forename: Fabio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Azzeri
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000556:Ambulatory Surgical Procedures; D016058:Analgesia, Patient-Controlled; D000700:Analgesics / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000778:Anesthetics, Dissociative / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001458:Bandages; D001569:Benzodiazepines / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002056:Burns; D004359:Drug Therapy, Combination; D004569:Electroencephalography; D006801:Humans; D006993:Hypnotics and Sedatives / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D008991:Monitoring, Physiologic / Q000379:methods; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D000778:Anesthetics, Dissociative; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D006993:Hypnotics and Sedatives; D001569:Benzodiazepines