title: A proposal for a new multiaxial model of psychiatric diagnosis. A continuum-based patient model derived from evolutionary developmental gene-environment interaction.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review recent genetic and neuroscientific research on psychiatric syndromes based on the current diagnostic scheme, and develop a better-fitting multiaxial patient-oriented diagnostic model.
  
  
  METHODS
  DSM I, published in 1952, considered psychiatric illnesses as reactions or extremes of adaptations of the patient's personality to stressful environmental demands. Personality itself was determined by constitution and psychodynamic development. In 1980, this continuum model gave way to an atheoretical categorical diagnostic scheme (DSM III), based on research diagnostic criteria for obtaining 'pure cultures' of patients for biological research. Subsequent research using the 'pure cultures' suggests that psychiatric syndromes represent a phenotypic continuum determined by genes, childhood traumas, and recent stress, mitigated by childhood nurturance, education, and current social support. Specific gene x childhood abuse x recent stress interactions have been discovered, which may serve as a model of how interacting vulnerability genes may or may not result in a psychiatric syndrome, depending on the individual's developmental history and current stress.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A continuum model is proposed, with genes interacting with early experiences of stress or nurturance resulting in brain states that may evince minor but persistent symptoms (neurosis) or maladaptive patterns of behavior (personality disorder). The addition of recent or current stress may precipitate a major psychiatric syndrome. While a severe genetic predisposition, such as a mutation, may be sufficient to cause a major syndrome, major psychiatric syndromes are best conceptualized as dysregulation of evolutionarily adaptive brain functions, such as anxiety and vigilance. A new multiaxial model of psychiatric diagnosis is proposed based on this model: axis I for phenomenological diagnoses that include major psychiatric syndromes (e.g. depressive syndrome, psychosis), neuroses, personality disorders, and isolated symptoms; axis II for geno-neuroscience diagnoses, some of which may represent biological conditions associated with axis I, i.e. genes, specific brain morphology, and the functional state of specific brain areas based on laboratory and imaging studies; axis III for medical diseases and conditions; axis IV for stress (childhood, recent, and current); axis V for psychosocial assets (intelligence, education, school/work, social support, and global assessment of functioning) over past 5 years and current.
authors.affiliation: University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA. hoyle.leigh@ucsf.edu
authors.forename: Hoyle
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Leigh
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D005075:Biological Evolution; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D004777:Environment; D015870:Gene Expression / Q000235:genetics*; D005838:Genotype; D006801:Humans; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000235:genetics*; D012107:Research Design; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000523:psychology