title: Effects of cigarette smoke on fertilization and embryo development in vivo.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the effects of smoking on eggs and subsequent embryo development by maternal exposure to cigarette smoke.
  
  
  METHODS
  Mice were exposed to cigarette smoke or cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) for 4 weeks and then examined for development and telomere function of embryos in vitro after fertilization. In addition, the effects of continuous smoke on embryo development and telomere length were determined by treating mice for 4 weeks, followed by continuous exposure to cigarette smoke or CSC after fertilization.
  
  
  METHODS
  Laboratory study.
  
  
  METHODS
  CD1 mice.
  
  
  METHODS
  Mice were exposed to cigarette smoke or CSC.
  
  
  METHODS
  The percentage (rate) of blastocyst development, quality of embryos assessed by total cell number, apoptosis, Oct4 expression (a molecular marker of embryonic stem cells), telomere length and loss, and chromosomal instability were compared between smoke- and CSC- treated mice and sham-treated mice.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mice exposed to cigarette smoke or CSC for 4 weeks exhibited increased egg fragmentation or delayed fertilization, thus reducing development to blastocysts in vitro. Fragmented eggs showed increased reactive oxygen species. Mice exposed to smoke or CSC showed increased apoptosis and altered expression of Oct4 in developed embryos. The effects of smoke or CSC on embryo development showed a dose-dependent relationship to exposure time. Exposure to smoke or CSC beginning 4 weeks before fertilization altered expression of Oct4 and increased apoptosis in blastocysts. Notably, the rate of abnormal embryos significantly increased in the smoke and CSC groups. Smoke and CSC shortened telomeres in embryos, but their telomere shortening was not enough to induce major chromosome abnormalities in mice, which have unusually long telomeres.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Together, the whole animal exposure model shows that cigarette smoke induces oxidative stress, telomere shortening, and apoptosis, and compromises embryo development in vivo.
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida; College of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
authors.forename: Junjiu
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Huang
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida.
authors.forename: Maja
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Okuka
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: McLean
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida. Electronic address: dkeefe@health.usf.edu.
authors.forename: David L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Keefe
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida; College of Life Science, Nankai University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. Electronic address: liutelom@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: Lin
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Liu
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004622:Embryo, Mammalian / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D047108:Embryonic Development / Q000187:drug effects*; D005260:Female; D005306:Fertilization / Q000187:drug effects*; D019570:Inhalation Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D051379:Mice; D011247:Pregnancy; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species / Q000378:metabolism; D012906:Smoke / Q000009:adverse effects*; D014026:Nicotiana; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution / Q000009:adverse effects
chemical_list: D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species; D012906:Smoke; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution