title: Pressure ulcers: prevention, evaluation, and management.
abstract: A pressure ulcer is a localized injury to the skin or underlying tissue, usually over a bony prominence, as a result of unrelieved pressure. Predisposing factors are classified as intrinsic (e.g., limited mobility, poor nutrition, comorbidities, aging skin) or extrinsic (e.g., pressure, friction, shear, moisture). Prevention includes identifying at-risk persons and implementing specific prevention measures, such as following a patient repositioning schedule; keeping the head of the bed at the lowest safe elevation to prevent shear; using pressure-reducing surfaces; and assessing nutrition and providing supplementation, if needed. When an ulcer occurs, documentation of each ulcer (i.e., size, location, eschar and granulation tissue, exudate, odor, sinus tracts, undermining, and infection) and appropriate staging (I through IV) are essential to the wound assessment. Treatment involves management of local and distant infections, removal of necrotic tissue, maintenance of a moist environment for wound healing, and possibly surgery. Debridement is indicated when necrotic tissue is present. Urgent sharp debridement should be performed if advancing cellulitis or sepsis occurs. Mechanical, enzymatic, and autolytic debridement methods are nonurgent treatments. Wound cleansing, preferably with normal saline and appropriate dressings, is a mainstay of treatment for clean ulcers and after debridement. Bacterial load can be managed with cleansing. Topical antibiotics should be considered if there is no improvement in healing after 14 days. Systemic antibiotics are used in patients with advancing cellulitis, osteomyelitis, or systemic infection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family and Community Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia 23507, USA. bluestda@evms.edu
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Bluestein
authors.forename: Ashkan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Javaheri
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001458:Bandages; D001512:Bedding and Linens; D003646:Debridement; D006801:Humans; D009752:Nutritional Status; D003668:Pressure Ulcer / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000628:therapy; D012307:Risk Factors; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D014945:Wound Healing
chemical_list: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents