title: Long-term consequences of drugs on the paediatric cardiovascular system.
abstract: Many pharmacological and toxicological actions of drugs in children cannot be fully predicted from adult clinical experience or from standard non-clinical toxicology studies. Numerous drugs have direct or indirect pharmacological effects on the heart and are prescribed for children of all ages. Toxicity or secondary effects may be immediate or delayed for years after drug exposure has ceased. Originally, the aim of this review was to compile information on the effect of specific drugs on the post-natal development of the cardiovascular system and to examine long-term follow-up of the use of cardio-active drugs in children. The limited database of published information caused the original question to evolve into an examination of the medical literature for three areas of information: (i) whether vulnerable developmental windows have been identified that reflect the substantial functional development that the cardiovascular system undergoes after birth; (ii) what is known about pharmacological perturbation of development; and (iii) what the likelihood is of drug exposure during childhood. We examined different scenarios for exposure including random, isolated exposure, conditions historically associated with adults, primary or secondary cardiac disease, psychiatric and neurological conditions, asthma, cancer and HIV. Except for random, isolated drug exposures, each category of possible exposure contained numerous drugs known to have either primary or secondary effects on the cardiovascular system or to influence factors associated with atherosclerosis. It is likely that a significant number of children will be prescribed drugs having either direct or indirect effects upon the immature cardiovascular system. A confounding factor is the simultaneous use of over-the-counter medications and herbal or nutraceutical preparations that a patient, parent or guardian does not mention to a prescribing physician. Metabolism is also important in assessing drug effects in children. Differences in body water : body fat ratio, age-related gastrointestinal absorption, distribution, excretion, renal function and drug metabolizing capabilities make it possible for children to have a different metabolite profile for a drug compared with adults. There is little examination of drug effects on the interdependent processes of cardiac maturation and less examination of metabolite effects. It is difficult to identify delayed toxicities in children as these adverse events may take years to manifest with many patients lost to follow-up. Clearly this is an area of study where intermediate endpoints and surrogate markers would be of great benefit. Pharmacogenomics may be useful in providing markers of increased risk or susceptibility. A perspective must be kept in balancing the possibility of a problem with the very real benefits that many children experience from the use of these pharmaceuticals.
authors.affiliation: Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA.
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hausner
authors.forename: Monica L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Fiszman
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hanig
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Harlow
authors.forename: Gwen
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Zornberg
authors.forename: Solomon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sobel
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D018927:Anti-Asthmatic Agents; D019380:Anti-HIV Agents / Q000009:adverse effects; D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000009:adverse effects; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects; D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000458:organization & administration; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000187:drug effects*; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development / Q000187:drug effects*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D000529:Complementary Therapies / Q000009:adverse effects; D005938:Glucocorticoids / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D004366:Nonprescription Drugs / Q000009:adverse effects; D010372:Pediatrics; D019338:Polypharmacy; D055553:Prescription Drugs / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs / Q000009:adverse effects
chemical_list: D018927:Anti-Asthmatic Agents; D019380:Anti-HIV Agents; D000927:Anticonvulsants; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D005938:Glucocorticoids; D004366:Nonprescription Drugs; D055553:Prescription Drugs; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs