title: Interaction of parenting experiences and brain structure in the prediction of depressive symptoms in adolescents.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although some evidence suggests that neuroanatomic abnormalities may confer risk for major depressive disorder, findings are inconsistent. One potential explanation for this is the moderating role of environmental context, with individuals differing in their biological sensitivity to context.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine the influence of adverse parenting as an environmental moderator of the association between brain structure and depressive symptoms.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional measurement of brain structure, adverse parenting, and depressive symptoms in early adolescents.
  
  
  METHODS
  General community.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 106 students aged 11 to 13 years (55 males [51%]), recruited from primary schools in Melbourne, Australia, and their mothers. Selection was based on affective temperament, aimed at producing a sample representing a broad range of risk for major depressive disorder. No participant evidenced current or past case-level depressive, substance use, or eating disorder.
  
  
  METHODS
  (1) Volumetric measures of adolescents' amygdala, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); (2) frequency of observed maternal aggressive behavior during a mother-adolescent conflict-resolution interaction; and (3) adolescent depressive symptoms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Boys with smaller right amygdalas reported more depressive symptoms. However, neither hippocampal volume nor asymmetry measures of limbic or paralimbic ACC were directly related to level of depressive symptoms. Importantly, frequency of maternal aggressive behaviors moderated the associations between both the amygdala and ACC, and adolescent symptoms. Particularly, in conditions of low levels of maternal aggressiveness, boys with larger right amygdalas, girls with smaller bilateral amygdalas, and both boys and girls with smaller left paralimbic ACC reported fewer symptoms.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings help elucidate the complex relationships between brain structure, environmental factors, and depressive symptoms. Further longitudinal research is required to examine how these factors contribute to the onset of case-level disorder, but given that family context risk factors are modifiable, our findings do suggest the potential utility of targeted early parenting interventions.
authors.affiliation: ORYGEN Research Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Marie B H
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Yap
authors.forename: Sarah
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Whittle
authors.forename: Murat
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Yücel
authors.forename: Lisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Sheeber
authors.forename: Christos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pantelis
authors.forename: Julian G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Simmons
authors.forename: Nicholas B
authors.initials: NB
authors.lastname: Allen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000374:Aggression / Q000523:psychology; D000679:Amygdala / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D002648:Child; D003220:Conflict, Psychological; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003863:Depression / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007398:Interpersonal Relations; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D008425:Maternal Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology; D016487:Parenting; D012737:Sex Factors; D012931:Social Environment; D013694:Temperament