title: How useful are the stages of change for targeting interventions? Randomized test of a brief intervention to reduce smoking.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To see whether the stages of change are useful for targeting a brief intervention to reduce smoking based on implementation intentions. A second objective was to rule out demand characteristics as an alternative explanation for the findings of intervention studies based on the transtheoretical model and implementation intentions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants (N = 350) were randomized to a passive control condition (questionnaire only), active control condition (questionnaire plus instruction to plan to quit), or experimental condition (questionnaire, plan to quit, form an implementation intention). Their behavior and psychosocial orientation to quit were measured at baseline and at 2-month follow-up.
  
  
  METHODS
  Theory of planned behavior variables, nicotine dependence, and quitting.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Significantly more people quit smoking in the experimental condition than in the control conditions, and the planning instructions changed intention to quit and perceived control over quitting, but not behavior. Stage of change moderated these effects such that implementation intentions worked best for individuals who were in the preparation stage at baseline.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Harnessing both motivational and volitional processes seems to enhance the effectiveness of smoking cessation programs, although further work is required to clarify inconsistencies in the literature using the stages of change.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Research in Social Attitudes, Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Barnk, Sheffield S10 2TP, United Kingdom. c.j.armitage@sheffield.ac.uk
authors.forename: Christopher J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Armitage
authors.forename: Madelynne A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Arden
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior; D006293:Health Promotion; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D011582:Psychological Theory; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000379:methods*; D000074606:Smoking Prevention; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014836:Volition