title: Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.
abstract: A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of |.26| was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = |.36| and |.43|, respectively. For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = |.24|, |.18|, and |.17|, respectively; explicit threat-removal strategies were more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = |.14| and |.33|, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively. In addition, stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = |.52| and |.29|, respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d= |.11|. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA. hnguyen@csulb.edu
authors.forename: Hannah-Hanh D
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Nguyen
authors.forename: Ann Marie
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ryan
mesh_terms: D000339:Affect; D004650:Employee Performance Appraisal / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008913:Minority Groups / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011581:Psychological Tests; D013240:Stereotyping