title: Ladder diagrams for atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation.
abstract: Ladder diagrams are valuable teaching and interpretive tools in both human and veterinary electrocardiography. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how ladder diagrams can be used to help understand the possible mechanisms underlying atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation.
authors.affiliation: Section of Cardiology, Small Animal Hospital, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L7 7EX, UK.
authors.forename: Nuala
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Summerfield
authors.forename: Amara
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Estrada