title: Characteristics of trihalomethane (THM) production and associated health risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods.
abstract: Swimming pool water must be treated to prevent infections caused by microbial pathogens. In Korea, the most commonly used disinfection methods include the application of chlorine, ozone/chlorine, and a technique that uses electrochemically generated mixed oxidants (EGMOs). The purpose of this study was to estimate the concentrations of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) in indoor swimming pools adopting these disinfection methods, and to examine the correlations between the concentrations of THMs and TTHMs and other factors affecting the production of THMs. We also estimated the lifetime cancer risks associated with various exposure pathways by THMs in swimming pools. Water samples were collected from 183 indoor swimming pools in Seoul, Korea, and were analyzed for concentrations of each THM, TOC, and the amount of KMnO(4) consumption. The free chlorine residual and the pH of the pool water samples were also measured. The geometric mean concentrations of TTHMs in the swimming pool waters were 32.9+/-2.4 microg/L for chlorine, 23.3+/-2.2 microg/L for ozone/chlorine, and 58.2+/-1.7 microg/L for EGMO. The concentrations of THMs differed significantly among the three treatment methods, and the correlation between THMs and TTHMs and the other factors influencing THMs varied. The lifetime cancer risk estimation showed that, while risks from oral ingestion and dermal exposure to THMs are mostly less than 10(-6), which is the negligible risk level defined by the US EPA, however swimmers can be at the greater risk from inhalation exposure (7.77x10(-4)-1.36x10(-3)).
authors.affiliation: Institute of Health and Environment, School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul 110-799, South Korea.
authors.forename: Jin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: Kwang-Tae
authors.initials: KT
authors.lastname: Ha
authors.forename: Kyung-Duk
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Zoh
mesh_terms: D002713:Chlorine / Q000737:chemistry; D004203:Disinfection / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D019570:Inhalation Exposure / Q000032:analysis; D008297:Male; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced; D010126:Ozone / Q000737:chemistry; D018570:Risk Assessment; D013551:Swimming Pools; D022882:Trihalomethanes / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000506:poisoning
chemical_list: D022882:Trihalomethanes; D002713:Chlorine; D010126:Ozone