title: Ethical issues in implementation research: a discussion of the problems in achieving informed consent.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Improved quality of care is a policy objective of health care systems around the world. Implementation research is the scientific study of methods to promote the systematic uptake of clinical research findings into routine clinical practice, and hence to reduce inappropriate care. It includes the study of influences on healthcare professionals' behaviour and methods to enable them to use research findings more effectively. Cluster randomized trials represent the optimal design for evaluating the effectiveness of implementation strategies. Various codes of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki inform medical research, but their relevance to cluster randomised trials in implementation research is unclear. This paper discusses the applicability of various ethical codes to obtaining consent in cluster trials in implementation research.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The appropriate application of biomedical codes to implementation research is not obvious. Discussion of the nature and practice of informed consent in implementation research cluster trials must consider the levels at which consent can be sought, and for what purpose it can be sought. The level at which an intervention is delivered can render the idea of patient level consent meaningless. Careful consideration of the ownership of information, and rights of access to and exploitation of data is required. For health care professionals and organizations, there is a balance between clinical freedom and responsibility to participate in research.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While ethical justification for clinical trials relies heavily on individual consent, for implementation research aspects of distributive justice, economics, and political philosophy underlie the debate. Societies may need to trade off decisions on the choice between individualized consent and valid implementation research. We suggest that social sciences codes could usefully inform the consideration of implementation research by members of Research Ethics Committees.
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK. J.L.Hutton@warwick.ac.uk
authors.forename: Jane L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Hutton
authors.forename: Martin P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Eccles
authors.forename: Jeremy M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Grimshaw