title: Metabolism of acetaminophen (paracetamol) in plants--two independent pathways result in the formation of a glutathione and a glucose conjugate.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are detected in the aquatic environment and our drinking water supplies. The need for high quality drinking water is one of the most challenging problems of our times, but still only little knowledge exists on the impact of these compounds on ecosystems, animals, and man. Biological waste water treatment in constructed wetlands is an effective and low-cost alternative, especially for the treatment of non-industrial, municipal waste water. In this situation, plants get in contact with pharmaceutical compounds and have to tackle their detoxification. The mechanisms for the detoxification of xenobiotics in plants are closely related to the mammalian system. An activation reaction (phase I) is followed by a conjugation (phase II) with hydrophilic molecules like glutathione or glucose. Phase III reactions can be summarized as storage, degradation, and transport of the xenobiotic conjugate. Until now, there is no information available on the fate of pharmaceuticals in plants. In this study, we want to investigate the fate and metabolism of N-acetyl-4-aminophenol (paracetamol) in plant tissues using the cell culture of Armoracia rusticana L. as a model system.
  
  
  METHODS
  A hairy root culture of A. rusticana was treated with acetaminophen in a liquid culture. The formation and identification of metabolites over time were analyzed using HPLC-DAD and LC-MSn techniques.
  
  
  RESULTS
  With LC-MS technique, we were able to detect paracetamol and identify three of its metabolites in root cells of A. rusticana. Six hours after incubation with 1 mM of acetaminophen, the distribution of acetaminophen and related metabolites in the cells resulted in 18% paracetamol, 64% paracetamol-glucoside, 17% paracetamol glutathione, and 1% of the corresponding cysteine conjugate.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The formation of two independently formed metabolites in plant root cells again revealed strong similarities between plant and mammalian detoxification systems. The detoxification mechanism of glucuronization in mammals is mirrored by glucosidation of xenobiotics in plants. Furthermore, in both systems, a glutathione conjugate is formed. Due to the existence of P450 enzymes in plants, the formation of the highly reactive NAPQI intermediate is possible.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In this study, we introduce the hairy root cell culture of A. rusticana L. as a suitable model system to study the fate of acetaminophen in plant tissues. Our first results point to the direction of plants being able to take up and detoxify the model substrate paracetamol. These first findings underline the great potential of using plants for waste water treatments in constructed wetlands.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This very first study on the detoxification of a widely used antipyretic agent in plant tissues again shows the flexibility of plant detoxification systems and their potential in waste water treatment facilities. This study covers only the very first steps of acetaminophen detoxification in plants; still, there is no data on long-term exposure as well as the possible impact of pharmaceuticals on the plant health and stress defense. Long-term experiments need to be performed to follow the fate of acetaminophen in root and leaf cells in a whole plant system, and to evaluate possible usage of plants for the remediation of acetaminophen from waste water.
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbe-Plant Interactions, German Research Center for Health and Environment GmbH, Ingolstädter Landstrasse 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Huber
authors.forename: Bernadett
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Bartha
authors.forename: Rudolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Harpaintner
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Schröder
mesh_terms: D000082:Acetaminophen / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000378:metabolism*; D031215:Armoracia / Q000378:metabolism*; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D005947:Glucose / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D005978:Glutathione / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D007700:Kinetics; D015394:Molecular Structure; D018517:Plant Roots / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D000082:Acetaminophen; D005978:Glutathione; D005947:Glucose