title: Domestication of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in Western Ghats, India: divergence in productive traits and a shift in major pollinators.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Elettaria cardamomum, a highly priced spice, is native to the Western Ghats of South India. Wild populations still occur in isolated patches in their natural habitats; however, much of today's commercial product comes from cultivated sources. There is no information on domestication-related traits of this species; the main objective of this study was to compare wild and cultivated populations of cardamom in terms of vegetative and reproductive features in order to identify domestication syndromes and to examine whether the two populations have developed reproductive barriers.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two wild populations and five cultivated plantations were used for the present study. Vegetative and floral traits, flowering phenology, pollination biology and breeding systems of wild and cultivated populations were compared. Effective pollinators amongst floral visitors were identified by confirming pollen transfer as well as by fruit set following their visit to virgin flowers. Manual pollinations were carried out in order to study the breeding systems of the two populations and reproductive barriers, if any, between them.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Several productive traits including the number of branches, number of inflorescences, and total number of flowers per clump, number of flowers that open each day, the duration of flowering, the length of the flower and the amount of nectar per flower are significantly greater in cultivated cardamom. The principal pollinators in wild cardamom are solitary bees, Megachile sp. and two species of Amegilla, whereas those in cultivated cardamom are the social bees Apis dorsata, A. cerana and Trigona iridipennis. Both the wild and cultivated populations are self-compatible and there are no reproductive barriers between the two populations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Domestication in cardamom has brought about significant changes in vegetative and reproductive traits and a shift in effective pollinators from native solitary bees to social bees. The shift in pollinators seems to be due to the availability of a large number of flowers for prolonged periods in cultivated cardamom that can attract and sustain social bees, rather than due to co-evolution of the flower and the pollinator.
authors.affiliation: Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, 659 5th 'A' Main, Hebbal, Bangalore 560024, India.
authors.forename: Giby
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Kuriakose
authors.forename: Palatty Allesh
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Sinu
authors.forename: K R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Shivanna
mesh_terms: D000383:Agriculture; D000818:Animals; D001947:Breeding; D028523:Elettaria / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000502:physiology*; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D005638:Fruit / Q000254:growth & development; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005843:Geography; D007194:India; D054817:Pollination / Q000502:physiology*; D019655:Quantitative Trait, Heritable; D012098:Reproduction; D012639:Seeds / Q000254:growth & development