title: Ketamine use, cognition and psychological wellbeing: a comparison of frequent, infrequent and ex-users with polydrug and non-using controls.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Preliminary research has indicated that recreational ketamine use may be associated with marked cognitive impairments and elevated psychopathological symptoms, although no study to date has determined how these are affected by differing frequencies of use or whether they are reversible on cessation of use. In this study we aimed to determine how variations in ketamine use and abstention from prior use affect neurocognitive function and psychological wellbeing.
  
  
  METHODS
  We assessed a total of 150 individuals: 30 frequent ketamine users, 30 infrequent ketamine users, 30 ex-ketamine users, 30 polydrug users and 30 controls who did not use illicit drugs. Cognitive tasks included spatial working memory, pattern recognition memory, the Stockings of Cambridge (a variant of the Tower of London task), simple vigilance and verbal and category fluency. Standardized questionnaires were used to assess psychological wellbeing. Hair analysis was used to verify group membership.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Frequent ketamine users were impaired on spatial working memory, pattern recognition memory, Stockings of Cambridge and category fluency but exhibited preserved verbal fluency and prose recall. There were no differences in the performance of the infrequent ketamine users or ex-users compared to the other groups. Frequent users showed increased delusional, dissociative and schizotypal symptoms which were also evident to a lesser extent in infrequent and ex-users. Delusional symptoms correlated positively with the amount of ketamine used currently by the frequent users.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Frequent ketamine use is associated with impairments in working memory, episodic memory and aspects of executive function as well as reduced psychological wellbeing. 'Recreational' ketamine use does not appear to be associated with distinct cognitive impairments although increased levels of delusional and dissociative symptoms were observed. As no performance decrements were observed in the ex-ketamine users, it is possible that the cognitive impairments observed in the frequent ketamine group are reversible upon cessation of ketamine use, although delusional symptoms persist.
authors.affiliation: Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK. c.morgan@ucl.ac.uk
authors.forename: Celia J A
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Morgan
authors.forename: Leslie
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Muetzelfeldt
authors.forename: H Valerie
authors.initials: HV
authors.lastname: Curran
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000700:Analgesics / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002648:Child; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced*; D004213:Dissociative Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007649:Ketamine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008569:Memory Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications*; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D007649:Ketamine