Verbal short-term memory span in children: long-term modality dependent effects of intrauterine growth restriction.
BACKGROUND
Recent reports showed that children born with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) are at greater risk of experiencing verbal short-term memory span (STM) deficits that may impede their learning capacities at school. It is still unknown whether these deficits are modality dependent.


METHODS
This long-term, prospective design study examined modality-dependent verbal STM functions in children who were diagnosed at birth with IUGR (n = 138) and a control group (n = 64). Their STM skills were evaluated individually at 9 years of age with four conditions of the Visual-Aural Digit Span Test (VADS; Koppitz, 1981): auditory-oral, auditory-written, visuospatial-oral and visuospatial-written. Cognitive competence was evaluated with the short form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children--revised (WISC-R95; Wechsler, 1998).


RESULTS
We found IUGR-related specific auditory-oral STM deficits (p < .036) in conjunction with two double dissociations: an auditory-visuospatial (p < .014) and an input-output processing distinction (p < .014). Cognitive competence had a significant effect on all four conditions; however, the effect of IUGR on the auditory-oral condition was not overridden by the effect of intelligence quotient (IQ).


CONCLUSIONS
Intrauterine growth restriction affects global competence and inter-modality processing, as well as distinct auditory input processing related to verbal STM functions. The findings support a long-term relationship between prenatal aberrant head growth and auditory verbal STM deficits by the end of the first decade of life. Empirical, clinical and educational implications are presented.
Geva
R
R
Department of Psychology, The Developmental Neuropsychology Lab, The Gonda (Goldschmied) Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. gevaro@mail.biu.ac.il
Eshel
R
R
Leitner
Y
Y
Fattal-Valevski
A
A
Harel
S
S
D000161:Acoustic Stimulation / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D015984:Causality; D002648:Child; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology*; D015897:Comorbidity; D005260:Female; D005317:Fetal Growth Retardation / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D007557:Israel / Q000453:epidemiology; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008570:Memory, Short-Term; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000453:epidemiology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D013995:Time; D014705:Verbal Behavior