title: State-level moderation of genetic tendencies to smoke.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  I examined genetic influences on smoking among adolescents and differences in the heritability of smoking across states in the United States.
  
  
  METHODS
  With data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (participants aged 12-21 years), I used a multilevel twin- and sibling-pair (N = 2060 pairs) regression model.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Daily smoking (hereditability estimate [h(2)] = 0.54) and smoking onset (h(2) = 0.42) were both highly heritable. Whereas the genetic influences on smoking onset were consistent across states, there was significant variation in these influences on daily smoking. Genetic influences on daily smoking were lower in states with relatively high taxes on cigarettes and in those with greater controls on the vending machines and cigarette advertising. Genetic influences were also negatively associated with rates of smoking among youths.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  At the state level, gene-environment interaction models are best characterized by the model of social control. State policies may influence genetic tendencies to smoke regularly, but they have not affected the genetic contributions to cigarette onset or experimentation. Future tobacco-control policies may emphasize the heritable endophenotypes that increase the likelihood that adolescents will initiate smoking.
authors.affiliation: Department of Sociology, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado at Boulder, 219 Ketchum Hall, 327 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0327, USA. boardman@colorado.edu
authors.forename: Jason D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Boardman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D003120:Colorado / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D033161:Government Regulation; D006293:Health Promotion; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008957:Models, Genetic; D015233:Models, Statistical; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D011634:Public Health / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D000074606:Smoking Prevention; D040241:Social Marketing; D055815:Young Adult