Smoking in pregnancy and lactation: a review of risks and cessation strategies.
BACKGROUND
Despite documented evidence of harm to fetus and infant, a substantial number of women continue to smoke during pregnancy and lactation.


OBJECTIVE
To examine the literature regarding smoking during pregnancy and breastfeeding to ascertain adverse effects as well as the efficacy of interventions to enable women to stop smoking in the perinatal period.


METHODS
A comprehensive literature search was undertaken to identify all published studies reporting on smoking in pregnancy and lactation. MEDLINE, EMBASE, PUBMED, and Web of Science databases were searched for studies published in English from 1966 to 2008 that reported on smoking in pregnancy and breastfeeding, with information on adverse effects and on all forms of smoking cessation, including behavioral interventions, nicotine replacement therapy, and pharmacotherapy such as antidepressants.


RESULTS
There is evidence that smoking in pregnancy and lactation may cause many adverse affects in the perinatal period, childhood, and up to adulthood. These adverse effects include infertility, ectopic pregnancy, spontaneous abortion, placenta insufficiency, low birth weight, fetal growth restriction, preterm delivery, orofacial clefts, SIDS, craniosynostosis, clubfoot, childhood respiratory disease, attention deficit disorder, and some childhood cancers. A number of strategies have been developed to assist pregnant women in quitting smoking, including both behavioral interventions and pharmacological therapies, such as nicotine replacement and antidepressant therapy.


CONCLUSIONS
Behavioral interventions report only modest success rates. Nicotine replacement therapy and antidepressants appear to be safe to use in pregnancy, but do not achieve a substantially higher success rate for quitting.
Einarson
Adrienne
A
The Hospital for Sick Children, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. einarson@sickkids.ca
Riordan
Sara
S
D000328:Adult; D000470:Alkaloids / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000928:Antidepressive Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage; D001392:Azocines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D001552:Benzazepines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D001942:Breast Feeding; D001971:Bromocriptine / Q000008:administration & dosage; D015928:Cognitive Behavioral Therapy; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007774:Lactation; D009538:Nicotine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000276:immunology; D018722:Nicotinic Agonists / Q000008:administration & dosage; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000628:therapy*; D011807:Quinolizines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D011810:Quinoxalines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000628:therapy*; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000379:methods*; D014612:Vaccines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000068580:Varenicline; D055815:Young Adult; D000093843:Quinolizidine Alkaloids
D000470:Alkaloids; D000928:Antidepressive Agents; D001392:Azocines; D001552:Benzazepines; D001971:Bromocriptine; D009538:Nicotine; D018722:Nicotinic Agonists; D011807:Quinolizines; D011810:Quinoxalines; D014612:Vaccines; D000068580:Varenicline; C004712:cytisine; D000093843:Quinolizidine Alkaloids