title: Parental physical and psychological aggression: psychological symptoms in young adults.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between various levels of parent-child physical violence and psychological symptoms reported by college students, while controlling for demographic variables, severity and frequency of violence, and co-occurrence of parental psychological aggression.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants included 298 college students ranging in age from 18 to 27 years. Participants completed a demographic information form, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), and the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results of analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance indicated that individuals in the child physical abuse group obtained higher BSI scores compared to individuals in the corporal punishment and no violence groups. Few differences were observed between mild and severe corporal punishment groups. Multiple regression analyses indicated that when frequency of corporal punishment, child physical abuse, and psychological aggression, along with demographic variables, were considered simultaneously, psychological aggression was the most unique predictor of BSI scores.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The findings suggest that severe forms of physical violence were associated with long-term psychological symptoms. When demographic variables and the frequency of several parent aggression variables were considered simultaneously, however, psychological aggression was most predictive of psychological outcome. These findings suggest that messages communicated to a child via psychological aggression may be more important in contributing to psychological outcome than the actual occurrence of physical violence toward the child.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The current study supports the premise that severe physical aggression experienced in childhood is associated with serious psychological consequences in adulthood. In contrast, individuals who experienced less severe forms of parent-child violence, such as corporal aggression, exhibited similar symptom levels to those reporting no parent-child violence. When severe physical aggression, corporal aggression, and psychological aggression were considered simultaneously, however, psychological aggression emerged as the most unique predictor of psychological outcome. Researchers and clinicians who work with adults reporting childhood histories of severe parent-child violence should be aware of the importance of parent-child psychological aggression in contributing to psychological outcome.
authors.affiliation: Pepperdine University, Social Science Division, Malibu, CA 90263, USA.
authors.forename: Cindy L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Miller-Perrin
authors.forename: Robin D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Perrin
authors.forename: Jodie L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Kocur
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D054523:Adult Survivors of Child Abuse / Q000523:psychology*; D002140:California; D017579:Domestic Violence / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D013334:Students; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D015599:Trauma Severity Indices; D014495:Universities; D055815:Young Adult