title: Neural tube defects: an analysis of neighbourhood- and individual-level socio-economic characteristics.
abstract: Several studies have reported that neural tube defects (NTD) occur more frequently among children born to women of lower socio-economic status (SES). This study investigated the relationship between individual- and neighbourhood-level SES and the risk of an NTD-affected pregnancy. Data were drawn from a population-based case-control study of fetuses and infants among a cohort of California births between July 1999 and June 2003. Information on individual SES was obtained via telephone interviews with mothers of 337 (76% of eligible) cases and 626 (79% of eligible) non-malformed liveborn controls. Respondents' addresses were linked to the 2000 US Census to characterise six measures of neighbourhood SES (education, poverty, unemployment, occupation, crowding and rental occupancy). The analyses indicated that relative to women with a high school education, those with less than a high school education had a 1.7-fold increased risk of delivering infants with NTDs [95% CI 1.2, 2.6]. Twofold elevated risks for NTDs were observed for women with less than a high school education who lived in neighbourhoods where a majority of residents had not graduated from high school [95% CI 1.3, 3.1]. No consistent risk gradients were observed between NTD-affected pregnancies and indicators of lower neighbourhood SES. Results for phenotype subgroups were similar to those for all cases. Low maternal education was associated with an elevated risk of NTD in offspring. This risk varied by the education profile of the neighbourhood: women who did not graduate from high school and lived in less educated neighbourhoods exhibited a higher risk.
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology, Statistics and Prevention Research, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
authors.forename: Jagteshwar
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Grewal
authors.forename: Suzan L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Carmichael
authors.forename: Jun
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Song
authors.forename: Gary M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Shaw
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002140:California / Q000453:epidemiology; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D009436:Neural Tube Defects / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology; D011203:Poverty / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011247:Pregnancy; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012307:Risk Factors; D012924:Social Conditions / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D055815:Young Adult