title: Population immunity to measles virus and the effect of HIV-1 infection after a mass measles vaccination campaign in Lusaka, Zambia: a cross-sectional survey.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Measles control efforts are hindered by challenges in sustaining high vaccination coverage, waning immunity in HIV-1-infected children, and clustering of susceptible individuals. Our aim was to assess population immunity to measles virus after a mass vaccination campaign in a region with high HIV prevalence.
  
  
  METHODS
  3 years after a measles supplemental immunisation activity (SIA), we undertook a cross-sectional survey in Lusaka, Zambia. Households were randomly selected from a satellite image. Children aged 9 months to 5 years from selected households were eligible for enrolment. A questionnaire was administered to the children's caregivers to obtain information about measles vaccination history and history of measles. Oral fluid samples were obtained from children and tested for antibodies to measles virus and HIV-1 by EIA.
  
  
  RESULTS
  1015 children from 668 residences provided adequate specimens. 853 (84%) children had a history of measles vaccination according to either caregiver report or immunisation card. 679 children (67%) had antibodies to measles virus, and 64 (6%) children had antibodies to HIV-1. Children with antibodies to HIV-1 were as likely to have no history of measles vaccination as those without antibodies to HIV-1 (odds ratio [OR] 1.17, 95% CI 0.57-2.41). Children without measles antibodies were more likely to have never received measles vaccine than those with antibodies (adjusted OR 2.50, 1.69-3.71). In vaccinated children, 33 (61%) of 54 children with antibodies to HIV-1 also had antibodies to measles virus, compared with 568 (71%) of 796 children without antibodies to HIV-1 (p=0.1).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  3 years after an SIA, population immunity to measles was insufficient to interrupt measles virus transmission. The use of oral fluid and satellite images for sampling are potential methods to assess population immunity and the timing of SIAs.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
authors.forename: Sara A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Lowther
authors.forename: Frank C
authors.initials: FC
authors.lastname: Curriero
authors.forename: Brian T
authors.initials: BT
authors.lastname: Kalish
authors.forename: Timothy M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Shields
authors.forename: Mwaka
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Monze
authors.forename: William J
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Moss
mesh_terms: D000914:Antibodies, Viral / Q000032:analysis*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015897:Comorbidity; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004196:Disease Outbreaks / Q000517:prevention & control*; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000276:immunology; D015497:HIV-1 / Q000276:immunology; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008457:Measles / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000276:immunology* / Q000821:virology; D008458:Measles Vaccine / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D018103:Morbillivirus / Q000276:immunology*; D009061:Mouth Mucosa / Q000276:immunology; D015995:Prevalence; D015024:Zambia / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D000914:Antibodies, Viral; D008458:Measles Vaccine