title: Providers' experiences treating chronic pain among opioid-dependent drug users.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Successful management of chronic pain with opioid medications requires balancing opioid dependence and addiction with pain relief and restoration of function. Evaluating these risks and benefits is difficult among patients with chronic pain and pre-existing addiction, and the ambiguity is increased for patients on methadone maintenance therapy for opioid dependence. Providers treating both chronic pain and addiction routinely make diagnostic and therapeutic decisions, but decision-making strategies in this context have not been well described.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Our objective was twofold. We sought first to explore providers' perceptions of ambiguity, and then to examine their strategies for making diagnostic and treatment decisions to manage chronic pain among patients on methadone maintenance therapy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Qualitative semi-structured interviews.
  
  
  METHODS
  We interviewed health-care providers delivering integrated medical care and substance abuse treatment to patients in a methadone maintenance program.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Providers treating pain and co-morbid addiction described ambiguity in all diagnostic and therapeutic decisions. To cope with this inherent ambiguity, most providers adopted one of two decision-making frameworks, which determined clinical behavior. One framework prioritized addiction treatment by emphasizing the destructive consequences of abusing illicit drugs or prescription medications; the other prioritized pain management by focusing on the destructive consequences of untreated pain. Identification with a decision-making framework shaped providers' experiences, including their treatment goals, perceptions of treatment risks, pain management strategies, and tolerance of ambiguity. Adherence to one of these two frameworks led to wide variation in pain management practices, which created tension among providers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Providers delivering integrated medical care and substance abuse treatment to patients in a methadone maintenance program found tremendous ambiguity in the management of chronic pain. Most providers adopted one of the two divergent heuristic frameworks we identified, which resulted in significant variations in pain management. To reduce variation and determine best practices, studies should examine clinically relevant endpoints, including pain, illicit drug use, prescription drug abuse, and functional status. Until then, providers managing chronic pain in patients with co-morbid addiction should attempt to reduce tension by acknowledging ambiguity and engaging in open discourse.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10467, USA. kberg@montefiore.org
authors.forename: Karina M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Berg
authors.forename: Julia H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Arnsten
authors.forename: Galit
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sacajiu
authors.forename: Alison
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Karasz
mesh_terms: D002908:Chronic Disease; D003657:Decision Making; D019033:Delivery of Health Care, Integrated / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D008691:Methadone / Q000627:therapeutic use; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications*; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*
chemical_list: D008691:Methadone