Are opioids associated with sleep apnea? A review of the evidence.
Chronic opioid use for nonmalignant pain has increased dramatically; nonillicit unintentional deaths have also increased. This article reviews the physiology of breathing, effects of sleep on respiration, effects of opioids on respiration, potential interactions between sleep and opioids on respiration, and current evidence that chronic opioid use is associated with sleep-disordered breathing.
Walker
James M
JM
Intermountain Sleep Disorder Center, LDS Hospital, 325 8th Avenue and C Street, Salt Lake City, Utah 84143, USA. james.walker@imail.org
Farney
Robert J
RJ
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000009:adverse effects*; D006801:Humans; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D012143:Respiratory Physiological Phenomena / Q000187:drug effects; D012891:Sleep Apnea Syndromes / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000503:physiopathology
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid