title: Intergenerational continuity in convictions: a five-generation study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Intergenerational continuity in offending has been assessed in several studies. However, this has rarely been studied using more than two prospective generations. Also, within-gender and cross-gender effects have rarely been addressed. The evidence for mechanisms that may explain transmission is mixed.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using conviction data on five generations (n = 6322) that span the years 1882-2007, transmission from parent to child was studied, disaggregating for males and females. Parental conviction before the birth of the child was studied separately from parental conviction after the birth of the child. Transmission was studied using odds ratios.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Parental convictions increase the risk of offspring convictions, although the risk increase is, at around two on average, not extremely high. Delinquency by the mother was also associated with offspring criminality, although because of low prevalence the odds ratios were more variable. Parental delinquency before birth does not lead to increased risk. For serious delinquency, these findings were stronger.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study suggests that nurture rather than hereditary or labelling mechanisms may play a role in intergenerational continuity.
authors.affiliation: Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement, Leiden, The Netherlands. cbijleveld@nscr.nl
authors.forename: Catrien C J H
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Bijleveld
authors.forename: Miriam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wijkman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003415:Crime / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005220:Fathers / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016901:Intergenerational Relations; D007604:Juvenile Delinquency / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009035:Mothers / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D009679:Nuclear Family / Q000523:psychology*; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D055815:Young Adult