title: Assessment of the stability of human viruses and coliphage in groundwater by PCR and infectivity methods.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To investigate the potential health hazard from infectious viruses where coliphages, or viruses by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), have been detected in groundwater. Two aspects were investigated: the relationship between infectivity and detection by PCR and the stability of coliphage compared to human viruses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Virus decay (1 year) and detection (2 years) studies were undertaken on groundwater at 12 degrees C. The order of virus stability from most to least stable in groundwater, based on first-order inactivation, was: coliphage PhiX174 (0.5 d(-1)) > adenovirus 2 > coliphage PRD1 > poliovirus 3 > coxsackie virus B1 (0.13 d(-1)). The order for PCR results was: norovirus genotype II > adenovirus > norovirus genotype I > enterovirus.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Enterovirus and adenovirus detection by PCR and the duration of infectivity in groundwater followed similar trends over the time period studied. Adenovirus might be a better method for assessing groundwater contamination than using enterovirus; norovirus detection would provide information on a significant human health hazard. Bacteriophage is a good alternative indicator.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  PCR is a useful tool for identifying the health hazard from faecal contamination in groundwater where conditions are conducive to the survival of viruses and their nucleic acid.
authors.affiliation: Robens Centre for Public and Environmental Health, University of Surrey, Guildford, England. k.charles@surrey.ac.uk
authors.forename: K J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Charles
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Shore
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sellwood
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Laverick
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hart
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Pedley
mesh_terms: D000260:Adenoviruses, Human / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D003090:Coliphages / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D004279:DNA, Viral / Q000235:genetics; D004770:Enterovirus / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000821:virology*; D006801:Humans; D015233:Models, Statistical; D029322:Norovirus / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000235:genetics; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D004279:DNA, Viral; D012367:RNA, Viral