title: Antigen presentation on artificial acellular substrates: modular systems for flexible, adaptable immunotherapy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent findings on T cells and dendritic cells have elucidated principles that can be used for a bottom-up approach to engineering artificial antigen presentation on synthetic substrates.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To compare the latest artificial antigen-presenting cell (aAPC) technology, focussing on acellular systems because they offer advantages such as easy tunability and rapid point-of-care application compared with cellular systems. We review acellular aAPC performance and discuss their promise for clinical applications.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Acellular aAPCs are a powerful alternative to natural-cell-based therapies, offering flexibility and modularity for incorporation oSf a variety of stimuli, hence increasing precision. Current technologies should adapt physiologically important signals within safe materials to more closely approximate their cellular counterparts. These constructs could be administered parenterally as APC replacements for active vaccines or used ex vivo for adoptive immunotherapy.
authors.affiliation: Yale University, Malone Engineering Center, 55 Prospect Street, Room 402C, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
authors.forename: Erin R
authors.initials: ER
authors.lastname: Steenblock
authors.forename: Stephen H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Wrzesinski
authors.forename: Richard A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Flavell
authors.forename: Tarek M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Fahmy