title: Clinical review: The extrapancreatic effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 and related peptides.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) 7-36 amide, an insulinotropic hormone released from the intestinal L cells in response to nutrient ingestion, has been extensively reviewed with respect to beta-cell function. However GLP-1 receptors are abundant in many other tissues. Thus, the function of GLP-1 is not limited to the islet cells, and it has regulatory actions on many other organs.
  
  
  METHODS
  A review of published, peer-reviewed medical literature (1987 to September 2008) on the extrapancreatic actions of GLP-1 was performed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The extrapancreatic actions of GLP-1 include inhibition of gastric emptying and gastric acid secretion, thereby fulfilling the definition of GLP-1 as an enterogastrone. Other important extrapancreatic actions of GLP-1 include a regulatory role in hepatic glucose production, the inhibition of pancreatic exocrine secretion, cardioprotective and cardiotropic effects, the regulation of appetite and satiety, and stimulation of afferent sensory nerves. The primary metabolite of GLP-1, GLP-1 (9-36) amide, or GLP-1m, is the truncated product of degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase-4. GLP-1m has insulinomimetic effects on hepatic glucose production and cardiac function. Exendin-4 present in the salivary gland of the reptile, Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum), is a high-affinity agonist for the mammalian GLP-1 receptor. It is resistant to degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase-4, and therefore has a prolonged half-life.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  GLP-1 and its metabolite have important extrapancreatic effects particularly with regard to the cardiovascular system and insulinomimetic effects with respect to glucose homeostasis. These effects may be particularly important in the obese state. GLP-1, GLP-1m, and exendin-4 therefore have potential therapeutic roles because of their diffuse extrapancreatic actions.
authors.affiliation: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, Maryland 21224-2780, USA.
authors.forename: Rania
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Abu-Hamdah
authors.forename: Atoosa
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rabiee
authors.forename: Graydon S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Meneilly
authors.forename: Richard P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Shannon
authors.forename: Dana K
authors.initials: DK
authors.lastname: Andersen
authors.forename: Dariush
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Elahi