title: Akathisia: an updated review focusing on second-generation antipsychotics.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To provide a brief description of the pathophysiology of akathisia, the challenges of diagnosing and treating this condition, and potential associated clinical issues. Also, to provide a review of the literature on the incidence of drug-induced akathisia associated with the use of second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) and first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs).
  
  
  METHODS
  English-language literature with no date restrictions cited in PubMed was searched for the keywords akathisia, placebo, neuroleptic, or haloperidol, and the generic names of SGAs (clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, ziprasidone, or aripiprazole).
  
  
  METHODS
  Limits were set to search clinical trials, meta-analyses, or randomized controlled trials reviewing data from adult schizophrenia or bipolar disorder clinical trials. Studies including SGA comparisons with placebo and with FGAs, and also between SGAs themselves, were selected. Studies that specifically assessed akathisia (either subjectively or objectively or both) were included. Studies reporting generalized results pertaining to extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) were excluded.
  
  
  METHODS
  The incidence of akathisia, EPS rating scores, and required medications for the management of movement disorders were reviewed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Seventy-seven trials were included in the comparative review. Akathisia was observed with the use of all the SGAs. The akathisia incidence reported in bipolar disorder trials was generally higher compared with schizophrenia trials. The incidence reported for FGAs was consistently higher than that reported for SGAs, regardless of the patient population studied.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Akathisia remains a concern with the use of SGAs. More accurate and standardized evaluations are required for a better understanding of the nature and incidence of akathisia.
authors.affiliation: The Zucker Hillside Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Glen Oaks, NY 11004, USA. psychiatry@lij.edu
authors.forename: John M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Kane
authors.forename: Wolfgang W
authors.initials: WW
authors.lastname: Fleischhacker
authors.forename: Lars
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Hansen
authors.forename: Roy
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Perlis
authors.forename: Andrei
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pikalov
authors.forename: Sheila
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Assunção-Talbott
mesh_terms: D017109:Akathisia, Drug-Induced / Q000209:etiology*; D014150:Antipsychotic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects*; D006801:Humans
chemical_list: D014150:Antipsychotic Agents