title: Using the PhysX engine for physics-based virtual surgery with force feedback.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The development of modern surgical simulators is highly challenging, as they must support complex simulation environments. The demand for higher realism in such simulators has driven researchers to adopt physics-based models, which are computationally very demanding. This poses a major problem, since real-time interactions must permit graphical updates of 30 Hz and a much higher rate of 1 kHz for force feedback (haptics). Recently several physics engines have been developed which offer multi-physics simulation capabilities, including rigid and deformable bodies, cloth and fluids. While such physics engines provide unique opportunities for the development of surgical simulators, their higher latencies, compared to what is necessary for real-time graphics and haptics, offer significant barriers to their use in interactive simulation environments.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this work, we propose solutions to this problem and demonstrate how a multimodal surgical simulation environment may be developed based on NVIDIA's PhysX physics library. Hence, models that are undergoing relatively low-frequency updates in PhysX can exist in an environment that demands much higher frequency updates for haptics. We use a collision handling layer to interface between the physical response provided by PhysX and the haptic rendering device to provide both real-time tissue response and force feedback.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Our simulator integrates a bimanual haptic interface for force feedback and per-pixel shaders for graphics realism in real time. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach, we present the simulation of the laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB) procedure as a case study.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  To develop complex and realistic surgical trainers with realistic organ geometries and tissue properties demands stable physics-based deformation methods, which are not always compatible with the interaction level required for such trainers. We have shown that combining different modelling strategies for behaviour, collision and graphics is possible and desirable. Such multimodal environments enable suitable rates to simulate the major steps of the LAGB procedure.
authors.affiliation: Instituto de Informática, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil. amaciel@inf.ufrgs.br
authors.forename: Anderson
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Maciel
authors.forename: Tansel
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Halic
authors.forename: Zhonghua
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Lu
authors.forename: Luciana P
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Nedel
authors.forename: Suvranu
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: De
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001703:Biophysics / Q000379:methods; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005246:Feedback; D006801:Humans; D008954:Models, Biological; D012371:Robotics / Q000379:methods*; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D014110:Touch; D014584:User-Computer Interface