title: Gender specific differences in neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal exposure to very low-lead levels: the prospective cohort study in three-year olds.
abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between very low-level of prenatal lead exposure measured in the cord blood (<5 microg/dL) and possible gender-specific cognitive deficits in the course of the first three years of life. The accumulated lead dose in infants over the pregnancy period was measured by the cord blood lead level (BLL) and cognitive deficits were assessed by the Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI). The study sample consisted of 457 children born to non-smoking women living in the inner city and the outlying residential areas of Krakow. The relationship between prenatal lead exposure and MDI scores measured at 12, 24 and 36 months of age and adjusted to a set of important covariates (gender of child, maternal education, parity, breastfeeding, prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco smoke) was evaluated with linear multivariate regression, and the Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) longitudinal panel model. The median of lead level in cord blood was 1.21 microg/dL with the range of values from 0.44 to 4.60 microg/dL. Neither prenatal BLL (dichotomized by median) nor other covariates affected MDI score at 12 months of age. Subsequent testing of children at 24 months of age showed a borderline significant inverse association of lead exposure and mental function (beta coefficient=-2.42, 95%CI: -4.90 to 0.03), but the interaction term (BLL x male gender) was not significant. At 36 months, prenatal lead exposure was inversely and significantly associated with cognitive function in boys (Spearman correlation coefficient=-0.239, p=0.0007) but not girls (r=-0.058, p=0.432) and the interaction between BLL and male gender was significant (beta coefficient=-4.46; 95%CI: -8.28 to -0.63). Adjusted estimates of MDI deficit in boys at 36 months confirmed very strong negative impact of prenatal lead exposure (BLL>1.67 microg/dL) compared with the lowest quartile of exposure (beta coefficient=-6.2, p=0.002), but the effect in girls was insignificant (beta coefficient=-0.74, p=0.720). The average deficit of cognitive function in the total sample over the first three years of life (GEE model) associated with higher prenatal lead exposure was also significant (beta coefficient=-3.00; 95%CI: -5.22 to -0.70). Beside prenatal lead exposure, presence of older siblings at home and prenatal environmental tobacco smoke had a negative impact on MDI score. Better maternal education showed a strong beneficial effect on the cognitive development of children.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  the study suggests that there might be no threshold for lead toxicity in children and provides evidence that 3-year old boys are more susceptible than girls to prenatal very low lead exposure. The results of the study should persuade policy makers to consider gender-related susceptibility to lead and possibly to other toxic hazards in setting environmental protection guidelines. To determine whether the cognitive deficit documented in this study persists to older ages, the follow-up of the children over the next several years is to be carried out.
authors.affiliation: Coll. Med. Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland. myjedryc@cyf-kr.edu.pl
authors.forename: Wieslaw
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Jedrychowski
authors.forename: Frederica
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Perera
authors.forename: Jeffery
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Jankowski
authors.forename: Dorota
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mrozek-Budzyn
authors.forename: Elzbieta
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Mroz
authors.forename: Elzbieta
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Flak
authors.forename: Susan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Edwards
authors.forename: Anita
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Skarupa
authors.forename: Ilona
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Lisowska-Miszczyk
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002657:Child Development / Q000187:drug effects*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003071:Cognition / Q000187:drug effects*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D005312:Fetal Blood / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood* / Q000633:toxicity; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012737:Sex Factors
chemical_list: D007854:Lead