title: Persistence of literacy problems: spelling in adolescence and at mid-life.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Developmental reading problems show strong persistence across the school years; less is known about poor readers' later progress in literacy skills.
  
  
  METHODS
  Poor (n = 42) and normally developing readers (n = 86) tested in adolescence (ages 14/15 years) in the Isle of Wight epidemiological studies were re-contacted at mid-life (ages 44/45 years). Participants completed a spelling test, and reported on educational qualifications, perceived adult spelling competence, and problems in day-to-day literacy tasks.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Individual differences in spelling were highly persistent across this 30-year follow-up, with correlations between spelling at ages 14 and 44 years of r = .91 (p < .001) for poor readers and r = .89 (p < .001) for normally developing readers. Poor readers' spelling remained markedly impaired at mid-life, with some evidence that they had fallen further behind over the follow-up period. Taking account of adolescent spelling levels, continued exposure to reading and literacy demands in adolescence and early adulthood was independently predictive of adult spelling in both samples; family social background added further to prediction among normally developing readers only.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  By adolescence, individual differences in spelling and its related sub-skills are highly stable. Encouraging young people with reading disabilities to maintain their exposure to reading and writing may be advantageous in the longer term.
authors.affiliation: MRC Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK. b.maughan@iop.kcl.ac.uk
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Maughan
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Messer
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Collishaw
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pickles
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Snowling
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Yule
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rutter
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002321:Career Choice; D002648:Child; D004410:Dyslexia / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007206:Individuality; D007899:Leisure Activities; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008403:Mass Screening / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D008875:Middle Aged; D011932:Reading; D006113:United Kingdom; D014706:Verbal Learning; D014956:Writing; D055815:Young Adult