title: Male depression in females?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Scientific evidence for a male-typed depression ("male depression") is still limited, but mainly supports this concept with respect to single externalizing symptoms or symptom clusters. In particular, studies on non-clinical populations including males and females are lacking. The present study aims at assessing general well-being, the risk and the symptoms of male depression dependent on biological sex and gender-role orientation on instrumental (masculine) and expressive (feminine) personality traits in an unselected community sample of males and females.
  
  
  METHODS
  Students (518 males, 500 females) of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Germany, were asked to participate in a "stress study" and complete the following self-report questionnaires: the WHO-5 Well-being Index [Bech, P., 1998. Quality of Life in the Psychiatric Patient. Mosby-Wolfe, London], the Gotland Scale for Male Depression [Walinder, J., Rutz, W., 2001. Male depression and suicide. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 16 (suppl 2), 21-24] and the German Extended Personal Attribute Questionnaire [Runge, T.E., Frey, D., Gollwitzer, P.M., et al., 1981. Masculine (instrumental) and feminine (expressive) traits. A comparison between students in the United States and West Germany. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 12, 142-162].
  
  
  RESULTS
  General well-being of the students was significantly lower compared to population norms. Contrary to expectations, female students had a greater risk of male depression than male students (28.9% vs. 22.4%; p<0.05). Overall, prototypic depressive symptoms as well as externalizing symptoms were more pronounced in females. In the subgroup of those at risk for male depression, biological sex and kind of symptoms were unrelated. Principal component analyses revealed a similar symptom structure for males and females. Low scores on masculinity/instrumentality significantly predicted higher risk of male depression, independent of biological sex.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study sample is not representative to the general population. Self-reports of the participants were not validated by a clinical evaluation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that male depression might also be highly prevalent in females, at least in university students. This can be explained by a growing social acceptance of aggression in women, by a greater exposure to chronic stressors and by a more pronounced stress sensitivity. Particularly female students need special attention and support. Externalizing symptoms should be routinely assessed when diagnosing depression in men and women.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany. Anne-Maria.Moeller-Leimkuehler@med.uni-muenchen.de
authors.forename: Anne Maria
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Möller-Leimkühler
authors.forename: Mete
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Yücel
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000374:Aggression / Q000523:psychology; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D005783:Gender Identity; D005858:Germany; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D007508:Irritable Mood; D008297:Male; D010555:Personality Inventory / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011594:Psychometrics; D011788:Quality of Life / Q000523:psychology; D012307:Risk Factors; D013334:Students / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D055815:Young Adult