title: Formation of chlorinated disinfection by-products in viticulture.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The use of sodium hypochlorite (HYP) in viticulture results in effluents which are contaminated with halogenated substances. These disinfection by-products (DBPs) can be quantified as group parameter 'adsorbable organic halogens' (AOX) and have not been determined in effluents of viticulture yet. The substances that are detected as AOX are unknown. The AOX can be composed of harmless substances, but even toxic contaminants. Thus, it is impossible to assess ecological impacts. The aim of this study is to determine the quantification of AOX and DBPs after the use of HYP. This will be helpful to reduce environmental pollution by AOX.
  
  
  METHODS
  The potential of HYP to generate AOX was determined in laboratory-scale experiments. Different model solutions were treated with HYP according to disinfection processes in viticulture and conditions of AOX formation in effluents were simulated. AOX were quantified using the flask-shaking method and identified DBPs were investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Treatment with HYP resulted in the formation of AOX. The percentage conversion of HYP to AOX was up to 11%. Most important identified DBPs in viticulture are chloroform, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetaldehyde. In addition, the formation of carbon tetrachloride (CT), 1,1,1-trichloropropanone, 2,4-dichlorobenzoic acid and 2-chloro-/2,4-dichlorophenylacetic acid was investigated. It was demonstrated that reaction temperature, concentration of HYP and type of organic matter have important influence on the formation of chlorinated DBPs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The percentage conversion of HYP to AOX was similar to other published studies. Although a correlation of single compounds and AOX is difficult, chloroform was the predominant AOX. Generation of the volatile chloroform should be avoided due to possible adverse effects. The generation of dichloroacetic acid is of minor importance on account of biodegradation. Trichloroacetaldehyde and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone are weak mutagens and their formation should be avoided.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The generation of AOX and chlorinated DBPs can be minimised by reducing the concentrations of the organic materials in the effluents. The removal of organic matter before disinfection results in a decreased formation of AOX. HYP is an effective disinfectant; therefore, it should be used at low temperatures and concentrations to reduce the amount of AOX. If possible, disinfection should be accomplished by the use of no chlorine-containing agents. By this means, negative influences of HYP on the quality of wine can also be avoided.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results indicate that HYP has a high potential to form AOX in effluents of viticulture. The predominant by-products are chloroform, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetaldehyde. In further research, wastewaters from a winery and the in- and outflows of two sewage treatment plants were sampled during vintage and analysed. These results will be discussed in a following paper.
authors.affiliation: Institute for AgroEcology (IfA), RLP AgroScience GmbH, 67435 Neustadt/Weinstrasse, Germany. jan.barhorst@agroscience.rlp.de
authors.forename: Jan Bernd
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Barhorst
authors.forename: Roland
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kubiak
mesh_terms: D000383:Agriculture; D004202:Disinfectants / Q000737:chemistry*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000737:chemistry; D006846:Hydrocarbons, Halogenated / Q000737:chemistry; D015394:Molecular Structure; D012973:Sodium Hypochlorite / Q000737:chemistry*; D027843:Vitis; D014835:Volatilization
chemical_list: D004202:Disinfectants; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D006846:Hydrocarbons, Halogenated; D012973:Sodium Hypochlorite