title: Effects of flexor-pronator muscle loading on valgus stability of the elbow with an intact, stretched, and resected medial ulnar collateral ligament.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The medial ulnar collateral ligament (MUCL) is an important passive stabilizer to the valgus stresses that athletes experience during overhead throwing motion. However, the role of the flexor-pronator muscles as active stabilizers to valgus stress is not well defined in the literature. The objectives of this study were to quantify the relative contribution of the individual flexor-pronator muscles to valgus stability of the elbow and how this relationship was affected by ligament status.
  
  
  METHODS
  A custom elbow testing system and Microscribe 3DLX were used for biomechanical testing. Flexor-pronator muscles were loaded to simulate contraction, and the valgus angle of the elbow was measured in eight cadaveric specimens at 30 degrees , 60 degrees , and 90 degrees of elbow flexion with 3 different valgus torques applied to the forearm. Loads based on muscle cross-sectional area were applied to the flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS), and pronator teres (PT). The effect of each muscle was evaluated by unloading the individual muscle while the other 2 remained loaded, resulting in 5 loading conditions: no muscles loaded, all muscles loaded, unloaded FCU, unloaded FDS, and unloaded PT. Valgus angle was measured for 3 MUCL ligament conditions: intact, stretched, and cut.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The effect of muscle loading on valgus angle was similar for each ligament condition. Loading the flexor-pronator muscles significantly decreased valgus angle of the elbow in all testing conditions (P < .01). Unloading the FDS significantly increased valgus angle compared to all muscles loaded in all testing conditions (P < .016). Unloading the FCU and PT significantly increased valgus angle in less than half of the testing conditions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The FDS, PT, and FCU are all active stabilizers of the elbow to valgus stress. The FDS is the biggest contributor amongst the flexor-pronator muscles.
authors.affiliation: Orthopaedic Biomechanics Laboratory, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, Mission Regional Medical Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 90822, USA.
authors.forename: John H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Udall
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Fitzpatrick
authors.forename: Michelle H
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: McGarry
authors.forename: Thu-Ba
authors.initials: TB
authors.lastname: Leba
authors.forename: Thay Q
authors.initials: TQ
authors.lastname: Lee
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002102:Cadaver; D017885:Collateral Ligaments / Q000502:physiology*; D004551:Elbow Joint / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005542:Forearm / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007593:Joint Instability / Q000517:prevention & control; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009068:Movement / Q000502:physiology; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology*; D011336:Probability; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology*; D013314:Stress, Mechanical