title: Phytoremediation of contaminated soils and groundwater: lessons from the field.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The use of plants and associated microorganisms to remove, contain, inactivate, or degrade harmful environmental contaminants (generally termed phytoremediation) and to revitalize contaminated sites is gaining more and more attention. In this review, prerequisites for a successful remediation will be discussed. The performance of phytoremediation as an environmental remediation technology indeed depends on several factors including the extent of soil contamination, the availability and accessibility of contaminants for rhizosphere microorganisms and uptake into roots (bioavailability), and the ability of the plant and its associated microorganisms to intercept, absorb, accumulate, and/or degrade the contaminants. The main aim is to provide an overview of existing field experience in Europe concerning the use of plants and their associated microorganisms whether or not combined with amendments for the revitalization or remediation of contaminated soils and undeep groundwater. Contaminations with trace elements (except radionuclides) and organics will be considered. Because remediation with transgenic organisms is largely untested in the field, this topic is not covered in this review. Brief attention will be paid to the economical aspects, use, and processing of the biomass.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is clear that in spite of a growing public and commercial interest and the success of several pilot studies and field scale applications more fundamental research still is needed to better exploit the metabolic diversity of the plants themselves, but also to better understand the complex interactions between contaminants, soil, plant roots, and microorganisms (bacteria and mycorrhiza) in the rhizosphere. Further, more data are still needed to quantify the underlying economics, as a support for public acceptance and last but not least to convince policy makers and stakeholders (who are not very familiar with such techniques).
authors: Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Building D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium. jaco.vangronsveld@uhasselt.be
authors: Jaco
authors: J
authors: Vangronsveld
authors: Rolf
authors: R
authors: Herzig
authors: Nele
authors: N
authors: Weyens
authors: Jana
authors: J
authors: Boulet
authors: Kristin
authors: K
authors: Adriaensen
authors: Ann
authors: A
authors: Ruttens
authors: Theo
authors: T
authors: Thewys
authors: Andon
authors: A
authors: Vassilev
authors: Erik
authors: E
authors: Meers
authors: Erika
authors: E
authors: Nehnevajova
authors: Daniel
authors: D
authors: van der Lelie
authors: Michel
authors: M
authors: Mench
mesh_terms: D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D012987:Soil / Q000032:analysis*; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D014867:Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D012987:Soil; D012989:Soil Pollutants; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D014867:Water