title: The role of NH4Cl and cysteine proteases in Human Papillomavirus type 16 infection.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The infectious pathway of the non-enveloped Human Papillomavirus Type 16 (HPV16) includes binding to the cell surface, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and penetration into an endosome. HPV16 infection was shown to decrease in the presence of the lysosomotrophic neutralizing agent ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). NH4Cl neutralizes acidic endo-lysosome compartments, thus suggesting that pH was responsible for PV capsid conformational changes leading endosome escape.
  
  
  RESULTS
  However, our data suggested that NH4Cl blocked infection by preventing the movement of PV viral particles from the early endosome to the caveosome as was shown for JC virus 12. We have confirmed that HPV 16 infection requires the trafficking of reporter-virions to the caveosome as is the case for BPV1 34. In this manuscript we propose that the observed decrease in infection of PV in the presence of NH4Cl was due to a loss of movement of reporter-virions to caveosomes. We also demonstrate that cysteine proteases are involved in the infectious process, and that cathepsin B treatment of viral particles was shown to overcome the block of infection observed in the presence of furin inhibition. We confirmed the need for cathepsin B in HPV16 infection using cathepsin B null mouse embryonic fibroblasts.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We present data that suggest HPV16 infection is in part mediated by cysteine proteases, and that NH4Cl blocks the intracellular trafficking of infectious viral particles. To our knowledge this is the first demonstration that cysteine proteases influence the infection of a non-enveloped virus.
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratory, School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, USA. sarah.dabydeen@rfums.org
authors.forename: Sarah A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Dabydeen
authors.forename: Patricio I
authors.initials: PI
authors.lastname: Meneses
mesh_terms: D000643:Ammonium Chloride / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000818:Animals; D000998:Antiviral Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002460:Cell Line; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D003546:Cysteine Endopeptidases / Q000378:metabolism*; D011992:Endosomes / Q000821:virology; D054884:Host-Pathogen Interactions; D052162:Human papillomavirus 16 / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D018345:Mice, Knockout; D053586:Virus Internalization
chemical_list: D000998:Antiviral Agents; D000643:Ammonium Chloride; D003546:Cysteine Endopeptidases