Executive function, neural circuitry, and genetic mechanisms in schizophrenia.
After decades of research aimed at elucidating the pathophysiology and etiology of schizophrenia, it has become increasingly apparent that it is an illness knowing few boundaries. Psychopathological manifestations extend across several domains, impacting multiple facets of real-world functioning for the affected individual. Even within one such domain, arguably the most enduring, difficult to treat, and devastating to long-term functioning-executive impairment-there are not only a host of disrupted component processes, but also a complex underlying dysfunctional neural architecture. Further, just as implicated brain structures (eg, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) through postmortem and neuroimaging techniques continue to show alterations in multiple, interacting signaling pathways, so too does evolving understanding of genetic risk factors suggest multiple molecular entry points to illness liability. With this expansive network of interactions in mind, the present chapter takes a systems-level approach to executive dysfunction in schizophrenia, by identifying key regions both within and outside of the frontal lobes that show changes in schizophrenia and are important in cognitive control neural circuitry, summarizing current knowledge of their relevant functional interactions, and reviewing emerging links between schizophrenia risk genetics and characteristic executive circuit aberrancies observed with neuroimaging methods.
Eisenberg
Daniel Paul
DP
Section on Integrative Neuroimaging and Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, Genes, Cognition, and Psychosis Program, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD 20892-1365, USA. karen.berman@nih.gov
Berman
Karen Faith
KF
D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D009434:Neural Pathways / Q000503:physiopathology; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000235:genetics* / Q000503:physiopathology*
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008 Jun;9(6):437-52
18478032
Psychol Med. 2005 Jun;35(6):783-9
15997599
Psychiatry Res. 1997 Oct 31;75(3):145-57
9437772
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Sep;23(3):223-39
10942847
Schizophr Res. 2009 Jan;107(1):39-46
19046624
Brain. 1997 Oct;120 ( Pt 10):1823-43
9365373
Am J Med Genet. 2000 Spring;97(1):12-7
10813800
Compr Psychiatry. 2006 Mar-Apr;47(2):136-43
16490572
Brain. 2003 Mar;126(Pt 3):610-22
12566282
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 May 13;100(10):6186-91
12716966
Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Apr;160(4):709-19
12668360
Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;161(2):305-14
14754780
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Aug;158(8):1276-85
11481163
Neuroimage. 2009 Jun;46(2):516-21
19264140
Neuroscience. 2008 Apr 22;153(1):54-62
18359576
Neuroimage. 1998 May;7(4 Pt 1):296-303
9626670
Cereb Cortex. 2002 Sep;12(9):926-35
12183392
Schizophr Res. 2000 Jun 16;43(2-3):97-108
10858628
Nat Genet. 2004 Feb;36(2):131-7
14745448
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Mar 17;106(11):4507-12
19240213
Psychiatry Res. 1995 Nov 29;59(1-2):81-96
8771223
Am J Psychiatry. 1992 Jul;149(7):890-7
1609867
Biol Psychiatry. 1999 May 1;45(9):1128-37
10331104
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;162(3):475-84
15741464
Nature. 1997 Apr 10;386(6625):604-8
9121583
Psychiatry Res. 1994 Sep;55(3):131-9
7870853
Mol Psychiatry. 2008 Oct;13(10):915-7, 909
18800054
Psychiatry Res. 1991 Dec;40(4):253-66
1811243
Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2000;400:11-6
10823306
Am J Psychiatry. 1994 Jun;151(6):842-8
8184992
Science. 1986 Dec 19;234(4783):1558-63
2878495
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jan;87(1):256-9
2296583
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982 Sep;39(9):991-7
7115016
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Dec 1;88(23):10850-4
1961755
Schizophr Res. 2008 Aug;103(1-3):62-70
18603414
Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Sep 1;64(5):407-18
18504037
Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Mar 1;53(5):376-84
12614990
J Clin Invest. 2007 Mar;117(3):672-82
17290303
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998 Dec;55(12):1097-103
9862553
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Apr 25;103(17):6747-52
16618933
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999 Jun;56(6):537-47
10359468
Neuron. 2009 Feb 26;61(4):609-20
19249280
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Mar 5;99(5):3228-33
11867725
Biol Psychiatry. 1991 Apr 1;29(7):703-6
1711381
Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;161(2):322-31
14754782
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998 Nov;55(11):1001-8
9819069
Neuropsychology. 1998 Jul;12(3):399-413
9673996
J Neurosci. 2003 Mar 15;23(6):2008-13
12657658
Neuroreport. 2001 Sep 17;12(13):2885-7
11588596
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Aug;158(8):1314-6
11481168
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 Dec;49(12):927-34
1360197
Schizophr Res. 2007 Aug;94(1-3):328-31
17574388
Am J Psychiatry. 1995 May;152(5):738-48
7726314
Brain Res. 1990 Nov 26;534(1-2):321-3
2073594
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;157(4):644-7
10739431
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jul 24;104(30):12536-41
17636131
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;157(11):1811-23
11058479
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Nov 22;91(24):11651-4
7972118
Schizophr Res. 2005 May 1;74(2-3):135-47
15721994
Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Feb;153(2):200-5
8561199
Hum Brain Mapp. 2007 Oct;28(10):931-9
17133402
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Apr;62(4):379-86
15809405
Schizophr Res. 2008 Feb;99(1-3):312-23
18155880
Brain Res. 1972 Aug 11;43(1):53-66
4626157
JAMA. 1994 Dec 14;272(22):1763-9
7966925
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991 Nov;48(11):987-95
1747022
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Mar 18;94(6):2569-74
9122236
Neuroscience. 1994 Sep;62(2):449-57
7830891
Nat Neurosci. 2005 May;8(5):594-6
15821730
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003 Jan;60(1):69-77
12511174
Cereb Cortex. 1999 Jan-Feb;9(1):20-6
10022492
Br J Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;194(1):25-33
19118321
Neuropsychologia. 2008 Jan 15;46(1):336-47
17707869
Schizophr Res. 2009 Mar;108(1-3):78-84
19056247
Mol Psychiatry. 2007 Oct;12(10):893-5, 885
17895922
Biol Psychiatry. 1993 Oct 15;34(8):529-35
8274580
Psychiatry Res. 2005 Apr 30;138(3):197-207
15854788
Nat Cell Biol. 2005 Dec;7(12):1167-78
16299498
Neuropsychopharmacology. 1998 Mar;18(3):186-96
9471116
Mol Psychiatry. 2001 May;6(3):293-301
11326297
Schizophr Res. 2006 Jul;85(1-3):232-44
16713185
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Jul;157(7):1141-9
10873924
Schizophr Res. 2009 Mar;108(1-3):104-13
19157788
Nature. 1998 May 14;393(6681):169-71
9603519
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995 Oct;52(10):805-18; discussion 819-20
7575100
Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Sep;155(9):1285-7
9734557
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;241(4):195-200
1576174
J Neurosci. 2002 May 1;22(9):3708-19
11978847
Mol Psychiatry. 2005 Feb;10(2):213-9
15381923
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Jan;157(1):26-33
10618009
Am J Psychiatry. 1999 Oct;156(10):1580-9
10518170
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002 Jul;27(1):47-54
12062906
Arch Neurol. 1990 Apr;47(4):418-22
2138883
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008 Aug;18(8):589-99
18554874
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Aug 1;60(3):235-41
16458267
Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Nov;159(11):1944-6
12411236
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Apr;66(4):377-86
19349307
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 Jan;59(1):25-30
11779278
Neuroscience. 1995 Dec;69(3):859-68
8596654
Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;154(6):812-8
9167509
Schizophr Res. 1999 May 4;37(1):35-44
10227106
Science. 1994 Oct 14;266(5183):294-8
7939669
Psychiatry Res. 2007 Apr 15;154(3):221-32
17360163
Science. 2000 Jun 9;288(5472):1835-8
10846167
Brain. 2008 Apr;131(Pt 4):971-86
18158315
J Neurosci. 2008 Sep 10;28(37):9239-48
18784304
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Dec 1;60(11):1250-8
16950222
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000 Jan;57(1):65-73
10632234
J Nucl Med. 1994 Jun;35(6):935-41
8195878
Neuropsychologia. 1995 Aug;33(8):1027-46
8524452
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Nov;158(11):1809-17
11691686
J Neurosci. 1998 Jul 1;18(13):5026-34
9634568
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Feb 3;101(5):1368-73
14742867
J Neurosci. 1996 Nov 15;16(22):7366-75
8929443
Synapse. 2005 Jun 15;56(4):185-97
15803499
Psychiatry Res. 1998 May 20;82(2):83-93
9754451
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998 May;55(5):433-40
9596046
Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;161(3):490-500
14992975
J Neurosci. 1996 Jan;16(1):19-30
8613785
Biol Psychiatry. 2001 Jan 1;49(1):28-38
11163777
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Sep;162(9):1733-5
16135634
J Neurosci. 1995 Mar;15(3 Pt 2):2186-91
7891160
Nat Neurosci. 2006 Dec;9(12):1477-8
17072305
Neuroimage. 2004 Jul;22(3):1231-46
15219595
Nature. 1997 Feb 13;385(6617):634-6
9024661
Neuroimage. 2003 Jul;19(3):751-63
12880804
J Clin Invest. 2008 Jun;118(6):2200-8
18497887
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jan;89(1-3):191-7
17029749
Crit Rev Neurobiol. 2000;14(1):1-21
11253953
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Nov;163(11):1969-77
17074949
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;66(1):13-20
19124684
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jan;89(1-3):35-48
17064881
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008 Oct;33(11):2619-25
18216774
Psychol Med. 2006 Apr;36(4):475-84
16403241
Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Aug 15;31(6):1177-81
17521792
Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2002 Feb;56(1):3-7
11929565
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000 Mar;57(3):237-45
10711910
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;162(3):485-94
15741465
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Sep;158(9):1393-9
11532723
Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003 Dec;6(4):361-70
14604451
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;61(2):134-42
14757589
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003 Sep;28(9):1703-11
12813475
Cell. 2005 Jul 29;122(2):261-73
16051150
Nat Neurosci. 2002 Mar;5(3):267-71
11865311
J Comp Neurol. 1998 Mar 16;392(3):402-12
9511926
Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2003 Dec;3(4):255-74
15040547
Neuropsychology. 2000 Jul;14(3):353-60
10928738
Psychiatry Res. 2008 Dec 30;164(3):198-205
19013774
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;162(10):1849-58
16199831
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995 Apr;52(4):258-66
7702443
Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Dec;152(12):1721-3
8526236
Schizophr Res. 2008 Dec;106(2-3):156-63
18799290
Mol Psychiatry. 2008 Sep;13(9):873-7
18195713
Synapse. 2007 Aug;61(8):615-21
17476682
Acad Radiol. 2008 Mar;15(3):285-9
18280926
Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Dec;160(12):2209-15
14638592
Hum Brain Mapp. 2005 May;25(1):35-45
15846821
Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Oct 1;52(7):708-15
12372661
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Mar;163(3):463-9
16513868
Neuropathology. 2008 Apr;28(2):143-50
18069969
Schizophr Res. 2005 May 1;74(2-3):179-94
15721998
Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2001 Jun;1(2):137-60
12467110
Neuroimage. 2002 Dec;17(4):1711-9
12498745
Cortex. 2005 Dec;41(6):753-63
16350658
Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Dec 15;64(12):1026-34
18823880
J Cogn Neurosci. 2009 Dec;21(12):2263-75
19199405
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Sep 25;98(20):11650-5
11573002
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;162(10):1833-9
16199829
Behav Pharmacol. 2001 Sep;12(5):355-71
11710751
Biol Psychiatry. 1998 Oct 15;44(8):787-90
9798085
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Jan;157(1):16-25
10618008
Neuroimage. 1999 Feb;9(2):216-26
9927550
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jul;93(1-3):1-12
17399954
Lancet. 1974 Dec 21;2(7895):1484-6
4140398
Mol Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;9(11):1037-41
15197400
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jul;93(1-3):79-89
17383859
Mol Psychiatry. 2010 Sep;15(9):918-27
19417742
Br J Psychiatry. 2009 Apr;194(4):373-4
19336793
Schizophr Res. 2003 Apr 1;60(2-3):285-98
12591590
J Neurosci. 2001 Oct 1;21(19):7733-41
11567063
Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Sep 1;46(5):681-8
10472420
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Aug 24;101(34):12604-9
15310849
Neuroimage. 2007 Feb 1;34(3):1253-69
17175179
Hum Brain Mapp. 2009 Oct;30(10):3406-16
19350564
Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Dec 1;54(11):1171-80
14643084
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;62(10):1071-80
16203952
Lancet. 1991 Feb 23;337(8739):450-2
1671470
J Neurophysiol. 2003 Feb;89(2):1067-77
12574481
Neuroimage. 2009 May 1;45(4):1359-67
19162202
J Neurosci. 1996 Nov 1;16(21):7055-62
8824341
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Nov 11;105(45):17573-8
18988738
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jun 14;102(24):8627-32
15939883
Cereb Cortex. 2009 Feb;19(2):445-54
18550595
Schizophr Bull. 2005 Jan;31(1):167-74
15888434
Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Jan 1;53(1):12-24
12513941
Schizophr Res. 2001 Oct 1;52(1-2):79-86
11595394
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Feb;22(2):125-32
10649825
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 Dec;49(12):943-58
1360199
Hum Mol Genet. 2006 Sep 15;15(18):2804-12
16905560
PLoS Genet. 2008 Nov;4(11):e1000252
18989458
Brain. 2005 Nov;128(Pt 11):2597-611
16183659
Synapse. 2008 Aug;62(8):616-27
18509852
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jan;89(1-3):198-210
17010573
Brain Res. 1990 Nov 26;534(1-2):263-72
2073588
Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Oct;161(10):1848-55
15465982
Am J Hum Genet. 2004 Nov;75(5):862-72
15386212
J Neurosci. 1991 Jul;11(7):1907-17
2066768
Schizophr Res. 2001 Oct 1;52(1-2):47-55
11595391
Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 1999 Jul 16;8(2):107-15
10407200
Lancet. 1995 Oct 28;346(8983):1130-1
7475604
Biol Psychiatry. 2000 Jul 15;48(2):99-109
10903406
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Jan 27;106(4):1279-84
19164577
J Neurosci. 1992 Mar;12(3):924-9
1372045
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 Aug;59(8):705-12
12150646
J Psychiatr Res. 2008 May;42(6):469-76
17559877
Psychiatry Res. 2007 Jan 15;154(1):31-40
17188464
Eur J Neurosci. 2004 Feb;19(3):755-60
14984425
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;61(2):119-29
14757588
PLoS One. 2007 Aug 29;2(8):e809
17726539
J Neurosci. 2005 Mar 9;25(10):2471-7
15758155
Br J Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;162:183-92
8435688
Science. 1999 Mar 12;283(5408):1657-61
10073923
Synapse. 1998 Feb;28(2):125-39
9450513
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004 Jul;61(7):649-57
15237077
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Jun 5;98(12):6917-22
11381111
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008 Aug;258(5):278-84
18437282
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Aug;162(8):1539-41
16055780
Neuroimage. 2004 Mar;21(3):840-7
15006650
Mol Pharmacol. 2007 Mar;71(3):835-42
17164407
Schizophr Res. 2007 Dec;97(1-3):184-93
17855057
Cereb Cortex. 1998 Apr-May;8(3):261-8
9617921
Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Jul;164(7):1090-8
17606661
Eur Psychiatry. 2008 Dec;23(8):541-8
18434103
Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Feb 1;51(3):216-23
11839364
J Neurosci. 2007 Feb 14;27(7):1584-93
17301167
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;57(4):349-56
10768696
Schizophr Bull. 2009 Jan;35(1):47-57
18990710
Nature. 1980 Jul 3;286(5768):74-6
7393327
Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Dec;155(12):1711-7
9842780
Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2006 Mar;19(2):135-9
16612192
Br J Psychiatry. 2000 Jan;176:52-60
10789327
Schizophr Bull. 2009 Jan;35(1):19-31
19042912
Neuroreport. 2003 Dec 2;14(17):2233-7
14625454
Psychiatry Res. 2000 Nov 20;100(1):1-11
11090720
Q J Nucl Med. 1998 Sep;42(3):211-21
9796369
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 May 15;57(10):1117-27
15866551
Cereb Cortex. 2002 Sep;12(9):983-90
12183397
Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Jan 1;165(1):1-13
17074966
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Mar;157(3):428-37
10698820
Hum Mol Genet. 2002 Jun 1;11(12):1373-80
12023979
Neuropsychologia. 1991;29(12):1137-48
1791928
Mol Psychiatry. 2008 Nov;13(11):1054-9
17925794
Schizophr Res. 2004 Jun 1;68(2-3):159-71
15099600
Br J Psychiatry. 2004 Sep;185:205-14
15339824
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Mar;157(3):422-7
10698819
Schizophr Bull. 2009 Nov;35(6):1142-62
18556667
N Engl J Med. 1990 Mar 22;322(12):789-94
2308615
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Jul 1;60(1):11-21
16503328
Schizophr Res. 2001 Oct 1;52(1-2):87-99
11595395
Psychiatry Res. 2006 Mar 31;146(2):171-7
16510267
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008 May;33(6):1276-86
17687264
Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2004;44:269-96
14744247
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Dec;162(12):2233-45
16330585
Schizophr Res. 1997 Feb 7;23(2):167-74
9061812
Am J Psychiatry. 2003 May;160(5):919-23
12727696
Am J Psychiatry. 2008 Aug;165(8):1006-14
18519527
PLoS One. 2008 Mar 12;3(3):e1760
18335036
Nat Genet. 2008 Sep;40(9):1053-5
18677311
Hum Mol Genet. 2006 Jun 15;15(12):1995-2002
16687441
Nature. 2008 Sep 11;455(7210):232-6
18668039
Neuroscience. 1999;94(1):21-31
10613493
Schizophr Res. 2005 Jul 15;76(2-3):199-206
15949653
Schizophr Res. 2005 Feb 1;73(1):103-12
15567082
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Aug 1;97(16):9276-80
10908653
Mol Psychiatry. 2006 May;11(5):459-70, 423
16491132
Psychiatry Res. 1994 Jul;53(1):57-75
7991732
Cereb Cortex. 1992 Nov-Dec;2(6):503-12
1282404
Schizophr Res. 2008 Apr;101(1-3):95-105
18378428
Hum Brain Mapp. 2005 May;25(1):60-9
15846819
Psychiatry Res. 1999 Oct 11;91(3):163-73
10641580
Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Jun;155(6):761-7
9619147
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988 Jul;45(7):616-22
3382321
Psychiatry Res. 2003 May 1;123(1):1-15
12738340
Schizophr Bull. 1991;17(4):597-608
1805353
Synapse. 1999 Jan;31(1):67-75
10025685
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007 Nov;64(11):1270-80
17984396
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1994 Fall;6(4):419-27
7841813
Schizophr Res. 1999 Jan 4;35(1):41-50
9988840
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;43(2):114-24
3947207
Mol Psychiatry. 2009 Apr;14(4):416-28
19065146
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000 Winter;12(1):4-15
10678506
Br J Psychiatry. 2003 Nov;183:414-7
14594916
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;43(2):126-35
2868701
Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Mar;164(3):467-73
17329472
Schizophr Res. 2004 Jun 1;68(2-3):203-16
15099603
Hum Mol Genet. 2003 Dec 1;12(23):3151-9
14532331
Science. 2009 May 1;324(5927):605
19407193
Neuropsychologia. 1993 Jan;31(1):17-28
8437679
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Apr;163(4):740-2
16585454
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990 Nov;47(11):1023-8
2241504
Neuropsychologia. 2007 Apr 9;45(8):1697-706
17292926
Schizophr Res. 2009 Apr;109(1-3):182-90
19179050
Hum Brain Mapp. 2009 Jan;30(1):241-55
18072279
Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Jan;159(1):59-65
11772691
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Aug 20;93(17):9235-40
8799184
Biol Psychiatry. 2001 Sep 15;50(6):395-406
11566156
Nature. 1995 Nov 9;378(6553):180-2
7477319
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Mar;58(3):280-8
11231835
Psychiatry Res. 2007 Oct 15;156(1):69-74
17683918
Schizophr Res. 2009 Mar;108(1-3):143-50
19196494
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Jul;158(7):1105-13
11431233
Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Feb;159(2):251-4
11823267
Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Jan 1;53(1):25-38
12513942
Hum Mol Genet. 2006 Apr 15;15(8):1245-58
16510495
Psychiatry Res. 1990 Apr;35(1):1-13
2367608
Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Aug;155(8):1056-63
9699694
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Dec;58(12):1118-25
11735840
Schizophr Res. 1996 May;19(2-3):177-87
8789916
Schizophr Res. 2005 Jun 15;75(2-3):247-63
15885517
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Feb 1;57(3):252-60
15691526
Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;28(2):273-8
14751422
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;62(3):263-72
15753239
Schizophr Res. 2007 Jan;89(1-3):1-11
17085018
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Sep;158(9):1423-8
11532726
Psychiatry Res. 1992 Jun;42(3):273-82
1353892
Mol Psychiatry. 2006 Sep;11(9):867-77, 797
16786032
Neuroscience. 2005;135(4):1055-65
16165288
Eur Psychiatry. 1999 Mar;14(1):17-24
10572321
Am J Hum Genet. 2002 Oct;71(4):877-92
12145742
Nature. 1993 Sep 30;365(6445):441-5
8413587
Eur J Neurosci. 1996 Feb;8(2):353-64
8714706
Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Dec;154(12):1670-5
9396944