title: Competitive elite golf: a review of the relationships between playing results, technique and physique.
abstract: Elite golfers commonly use fitness and technical training to become more competitive. The aim of this paper was to review the literature regarding the relationships between elite golfers' playing results, technique and physique. The competitive outcome is a direct function of the score. The three golf statistical measures that show the strongest correlations to scoring average are greens in regulation (GIR), scrambling, and putts per GIR. However, more detailed game statistics are needed where the distances to the targets are known before and after the strokes. Players affect ball displacement by controlling clubhead velocity and clubface angle during club and ball impact. X-factor studies have produced ambiguous results, possibly caused by different definitions of upper torso, rotation and top of backswing. Higher clubhead speed is generally associated with larger spinal rotation and shoulder girdle protraction at the top of the backswing. It is also associated with higher ground reaction forces and torques, a bottom-up and sequential increase of body segment angular velocities, a rapid increase of spinal rotation and a late adduction of the wrists during the downswing. Players can increase the clubhead speed generated by a swinging motion by actively adding a force couple. Wrist, elbow and shoulder force couple strategies should be differentiated when investigating the technique. Physical parameters such as anthropometrics, strength and flexibility are associated with skill level and clubhead speed. Current studies have investigated the linear correlation between arm and shaft lengths and clubhead speed, but a quadratic relationship may be stronger due to changes in moment of inertia. Fitness training can increase and perhaps decrease the clubhead speed and striking distance, depending on training methods and the player's fitness and level of skill. Future studies may focus on individual training needs and the relationship between physique, execution and its relation to accuracy of impact and ball displacement.
authors.affiliation: School of Health and Medical Sciences, Orebro University, Orebro, Sweden. john.hellstrom@pgasweden.com
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hellström
mesh_terms: D054874:Athletic Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001703:Biophysics; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000502:physiology; D001827:Body Height / Q000502:physiology; D015992:Body Mass Index; D006055:Golf / Q000502:physiology*; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D053580:Muscle Strength / Q000502:physiology; D010101:Oxygen Consumption / Q000502:physiology; D004856:Postural Balance / Q000502:physiology; D019876:Sports Equipment
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2005 Mar;23(3):227-34
references.pmid: 15966340
references.citation: J Sci Med Sport. 2004 Dec;7(4):465-72
references.pmid: 15712503
references.citation: Sports Med. 2005;35(5):429-49
references.pmid: 15896091
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2008 Jan 15;26(2):181-8
references.pmid: 17852693
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 2001 Apr;92(2):575-85
references.pmid: 11361324
references.citation: Clin J Sport Med. 1995 Jul;5(3):162-6
references.pmid: 7670971
references.citation: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000 Oct;32(10):1667-73
references.pmid: 11039635
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 1999 Oct;89(2):417-8
references.pmid: 10597577
references.citation: J Strength Cond Res. 2004 Feb;18(1):59-62
references.pmid: 14971982
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 1998 Jun;86(3 Pt 1):811-5
references.pmid: 9656273
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 1997 Jun;84(3 Pt 2):1314
references.pmid: 9229453
references.citation: Int J Sports Med. 2008 Jun;29(6):487-93
references.pmid: 18004680
references.citation: J Sports Sci Med. 2005 Dec 01;4(4):499-519
references.pmid: 24627665
references.citation: J Sports Sci Med. 2005 Dec 01;4(4):520-33
references.pmid: 24627666
references.citation: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(1):60-4
references.pmid: 7070260
references.citation: J Strength Cond Res. 2006 Feb;20(1):62-72
references.pmid: 16503694
references.citation: J Sci Med Sport. 2001 Mar;4(1):59-70
references.pmid: 11339494
references.citation: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993 Nov;25(11):1279-86
references.pmid: 8289617
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2008 Feb 1;26(3):243-50
references.pmid: 17917952
references.citation: J Biomech. 1993;26 Suppl 1:125-35
references.pmid: 8505347
references.citation: J Aging Phys Act. 2004 Apr;12(2):144-56
references.pmid: 15223883
references.citation: J Strength Cond Res. 2007 Nov;21(4):1166-71
references.pmid: 18076270
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 2004 Jun;98(3 Pt 1):1100-6
references.pmid: 15209327
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2002 Aug;20(8):591-7
references.pmid: 12190278
references.citation: Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1997;75(4):333-42
references.pmid: 9134365
references.citation: J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1967 Jun;7(2):76-82
references.pmid: 6074903
references.citation: Am J Sports Med. 1990 Mar-Apr;18(2):137-40
references.pmid: 2343980
references.citation: Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1984;53(2):97-105
references.pmid: 6542520
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 2006 Feb;102(1):109-17
references.pmid: 16671607
references.citation: J Biomech. 1992 Sep;25(9):975-83
references.pmid: 1517274
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2007 May;25(7):757-70
references.pmid: 17454544
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2000 Apr;18(4):247-54
references.pmid: 10824641
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 2007 May;25(7):771-9
references.pmid: 17454545
references.citation: J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Sep;43(3):334-41
references.pmid: 14625515