Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine- ginseng (II): Collected chemical entities, modern pharmacology, and clinical applications emanated from traditional Chinese medicine.
This review, a sequel to part 1 in the series, collects about 107 chemical entities separated from the roots, leaves and flower buds of Panax ginseng, quinquefolius and notoginseng, and categorizes these entities into about 18 groups based on their structural similarity. The bioactivities of these chemical entities are described. The 'Yin and Yang' theory and the fundamentals of the 'five elements' applied to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are concisely introduced to help readers understand how ginseng balances the dynamic equilibrium of human physiological processes from the TCM perspectives. This paper concerns the observation and experimental investigation of biological activities of ginseng used in the TCM of past and present cultures. The current biological findings of ginseng and its medical applications are narrated and critically discussed, including 1) its antihyperglycemic effect that may benefit type II diabetics; in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated protection of ginseng on beta-cells and obese diabetic mouse models. The related clinical trial results are stated. 2) its aphrodisiac effect and cardiovascular effect that partially attribute to ginseng's bioactivity on nitric oxide (NO); 3) its cognitive effect and neuropharmacological effect that are intensively tested in various rat models using purified ginsenosides and show a hope to treat Parkinson's disease (PD); 4) its uses as an adjuvant or immunotherapeutic agent to enhance immune activity, appetite and life quality of cancer patients during their chemotherapy and radiation. Although the apoptotic effect of ginsenosides, especially Rh2, Rg3 and Compound K, on various tumor cells has been shown via different pathways, their clinical effectiveness remains to be tested. This paper also updates the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and immune-stimulatory activities of ginseng, its ingredients and commercial products, as well as common side effects of ginseng mainly due to its overdose, and its pharmacokinetics.
Jia
Lee
L
Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute/ NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA. jiale@mail.nih.gov
Zhao
Yuqing
Y
Liang
Xing-Jie
XJ
D000818:Animals; D001046:Aphrodisiacs / Q000737:chemistry / Q000627:therapeutic use; D003920:Diabetes Mellitus / Q000188:drug therapy; D006801:Humans; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy; D009480:Neuropharmacology; D005894:Panax / Q000737:chemistry*; D008517:Phytotherapy; D028321:Plant Preparations / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000627:therapeutic use*
D001046:Aphrodisiacs; D028321:Plant Preparations
J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2001;3(2):123-30
11407811
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;889:157-92
10668493
Biol Pharm Bull. 1996 Nov;19(11):1434-9
8951159
J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Aug;87(8):3691-5
12161497
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;962:372-7
12076988
J Nat Prod. 2001 Sep;64(9):1127-32
11575942
Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2007 Sep;105(1):17-28
17111207
Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2007 Apr;59(5):589-601
16924497
J Nutr. 2007 Jan;137(1 Suppl):183S-185S
17182823
J Korean Med Sci. 2001 Dec;16 Suppl:S28-37
11748374
Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2008 Jan;61(1):63-73
17356822
Eur J Pharmacol. 2008 Jan 6;578(1):28-36
17949708
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2005 Feb;53(2):177-9
15684516
J Am Coll Nutr. 2006 Apr;25(2):100-7
16582025
Chem Biodivers. 2006 Feb;3(2):187-97
17193257
Biol Pharm Bull. 2007 Nov;30(11):2196-200
17978500
Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2005 Jun;55(6):531-40
15739095
J Nat Prod. 2007 Jul;70(7):1203-6
17629326
J Neurosci Res. 1998 Aug 15;53(4):426-32
9710262
Jpn J Pharmacol. 1964 Sep;14:284-94
14265195
Cancer Lett. 1997 Dec 16;121(1):73-81
9459177
Arch Pharm Res. 2005 Mar;28(3):335-42
15832823
Planta Med. 1985 Jun;(3):221-4
2863834
Cancer Causes Control. 2000 Jul;11(6):565-76
10880039
Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2004 Apr;172(4):430-4
14647971
Arch Intern Med. 2000 Apr 10;160(7):1009-13
10761967
J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993 Oct;267(1):371-8
8229764
Integr Cancer Ther. 2006 Mar;5(1):9-29
16484711
Arch Pharm Res. 2004 Jan;27(1):61-7
14969341
Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008 Oct;66(4):444-50
18754850
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1997 Jun;45(6):1039-45
9214709
Chin Med. 2007 May 15;2:6
17502003
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2006 Sep;3(3):365-72
16951721
Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2000 Jul;66(3):595-601
10899376
Circulation. 2004 Sep 7;110(10):1219-25
15337705
Public Health Nutr. 2000 Dec;3(4A):473-85
11276295
Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Sep 1;60(5):677-85
10927026
Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. 2005 Mar;36(2):217-20
15807271
Br J Pharmacol. 1995 May;115(1):15-8
7647970
Biol Pharm Bull. 1998 Jan;21(1):79-80
9477174
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2005 Jun;15(3):149-60
15955462
Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao. 1997 Jan;18(1):11-20
10072887
Altern Med Rev. 2004 Sep;9(3):259-74
15387718
J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl. 1996 Dec 13;687(2):443-8
9017469
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1982 Jun;30(6):2196-201
7127606
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2008 Jan;77(6):1345-50
18040682
Science. 1992 Dec 18;258(5090):1861
1470903
Planta Med. 1998 Dec;64(8):696-700
9933987
Am J Health Syst Pharm. 1999 Jan 15;56(2):125-38; quiz 139-41
10030529
Acta Neuropathol. 1996;91(1):15-22
8773141
Diabetes Care. 1995 Oct;18(10):1373-5
8721940
Neuroreport. 1998 May 11;9(7):1619-24
9631476
Chin Med J (Engl). 2007 Apr 5;120(7):584-8
17442207
Biochem Pharmacol. 1997 Jul 1;54(1):1-8
9296344
Am J Chin Med. 1999;27(3-4):331-8
10592841
Brain Res. 2002 Sep 20;950(1-2):254-60
12231251
Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 2001;22(5):339-41
11766734
J Pharm Pharmacol. 1988 Dec;40(12):838-43
2907575
Arch Pharm Res. 1997 Dec;20(6):539-44
18982256
Int J Oncol. 2003 Oct;23(4):1087-93
12963989
Drug Saf. 2002;25(5):323-44
12020172
Br J Pharmacol. 2001 Nov;134(6):1159-65
11704635
Phytomedicine. 1997 Mar;4(1):15-22
23195240
Gen Pharmacol. 1995 May;26(3):483-7
7789720
Arch Biochem Biophys. 2002 Oct 1;406(1):1-8
12234484
J Urol. 2002 Nov;168(5):2070-3
12394711
Am J Chin Med. 1986;14(3-4):145-52
3799531
J Med Invest. 2007 Aug;54(3-4):381-4
17878692
J Neurosci Res. 2001 Mar 15;63(6):509-15
11241586
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2007 Sep;55(9):1342-8
17827759
Phytother Res. 2005 Jul;19(7):649-51
16161030
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006 Jun;31(6):1158-64
16292329
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2001 Apr;49(4):442-6
11310671
Carcinogenesis. 2008 Dec;29(12):2351-9
18802031
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1989 Feb;37(2):481-4
2743497
Physiol Behav. 2004 Sep 15;82(2-3):345-55
15276798
J Pharmacol Sci. 2006 Mar;100(3):175-86
16518078
Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(19):2475-84
19601793
J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Apr 23;51(9):2555-8
12696936
Gen Pharmacol. 1994 Oct;25(6):1071-7
7875528
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 Nov;973:396-401
12485900
Physiol Behav. 2000 Jun 1-15;69(4-5):511-25
10913791
Biol Pharm Bull. 2007 Sep;30(9):1674-9
17827719
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1998 Apr;46(4):647-54
9579041
J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2001 Jan;37(1):41-7
11152372
J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2001;3(3):235-40
11491400
Sports Med. 1994 Oct;18(4):229-48
7817063
Am J Health Syst Pharm. 1997 Mar 15;54(6):692-3
9075501
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2001 Nov;49(11):1452-6
11724237
Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1998 Mar;30(3):327-38
9611775
Biol Pharm Bull. 2005 Apr;28(4):652-6
15802804
Brain Res. 2009 Jan 12;1248:184-90
19026615
Am J Chin Med. 2000;28(2):205-16
10999439
J Urol. 1999 Oct;162(4):1508-11
10492246
Adv Neurol. 1999;80:153-9
10410715
Brain Res. 2007 Mar 9;1136(1):190-9
17239831
Arch Pharm Res. 2004 Aug;27(8):834-9
15460444
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998 May 29;246(3):725-30
9618279
Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2002 Dec;23(12):1152-6
12466053
Neurosci Lett. 2003 Jun 19;344(1):1-4
12781907
Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2007 Aug;32(16):1680-4
18027667
Anticancer Res. 1997 Mar-Apr;17(2A):1067-72
9137450
Life Sci. 2000 Aug 4;67(11):1297-306
10972198
Jpn J Cancer Res. 1998 Jul;89(7):733-40
9738980
J Korean Med Sci. 2001 Dec;16 Suppl:S6-18
11748383
Integr Cancer Ther. 2003 Sep;2(3):247-67
15035888
Neuroreport. 2001 May 25;12(7):1453-6
11388428
J Am Coll Nutr. 2004 Jun;23(3):248-58
15190050
Eur J Pharmacol. 2008 Aug 20;590(1-3):74-9
18571158
Med Chem. 2007 Jan;3(1):51-60
17266624
J Ethnopharmacol. 1986 Apr-May;16(1):15-22
3528672
J Ethnopharmacol. 1988 Feb-Mar;22(2):173-81
3374151
BMC Complement Altern Med. 2008 Aug 19;8:50
18713456
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2002 Apr;50(4):538-40
11964005
Int J Impot Res. 1995 Sep;7(3):181-6
8750052
J Asian Nat Prod Res. 1998;1(2):93-7
11261219
Arch Pharm Res. 2003 Jan;26(1):58-63
12568360
Biol Pharm Bull. 2005 Sep;28(9):1621-5
16141527
Urology. 2005 Mar;65(3):611-5
15780402
J Korean Med Sci. 2001 Dec;16 Suppl:S42-53
11748376
Food Chem Toxicol. 1983 Feb;21(1):95-7
6681799
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2002 Aug 15;1572(1):58-66
12204333
Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2002 Apr;23(4):315-22
11931705
Physiol Behav. 1998 Jun 15;64(4):445-50
9761217
Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 1997 Jan;22(1):35-7, 62
10683909
Carcinogenesis. 2005 Feb;26(2):359-67
15498788
Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 2002 Jun;22(6):450-2
12585194
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2007 Apr;55(4):571-6
17409550
Yao Xue Xue Bao. 1989;24(8):593-9
2618703
J Biol Chem. 2000 Sep 29;275(39):30256-63
10884382
Eur J Pharmacol. 1996 Sep 26;312(2):149-51
8894589
Am J Chin Med. 1998;26(3-4):365-73
9862024
Cancer Res. 2005 Mar 1;65(5):1952-60
15753395
Arch Pharm Res. 2000 Oct;23(5):518-24
11059834
Exp Neurol. 2003 Nov;184(1):521-9
14637121
Curr Drug Metab. 2007 Dec;8(8):815-21
18220562
Diabetes. 2002 Jun;51(6):1851-8
12031973
J Sex Med. 2008 Sep;5(9):2079-84
18638003
Mutat Res. 2003 Feb-Mar;523-524:75-85
12628505
Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003 Jun;75(3):687-700
12895687
In Vivo. 2001 Mar-Apr;15(2):151-6
11317520
Eur J Cancer. 1999 Mar;35(3):507-11
10448308
Int J Oncol. 1999 May;14(5):869-75
10200336
Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004 Feb 1;194(3):221-9
14761678
J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2007 Oct 15;858(1-2):65-70
17825630
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2006 May;54(5):751-3
16651785
J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2003 Mar;84(4):463-8
12732291
Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao. 1990 Jan;11(1):29-32
2119543
Br J Cancer. 2008 Feb 26;98(4):792-802
18253123
Jpn J Pharmacol. 2002 Nov;90(3):254-62
12499580
Molecules. 2007 Sep 05;12(9):2140-50
17962732
Exp Neurol. 2002 Feb;173(2):224-34
11822886
Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 2001 Apr;21(4):260-1
12577351
JAMA. 1979 Apr 13;241(15):1614-5
430716
Planta Med. 1998 Aug;64(6):500-3
9741293