title: Metastasis mechanisms.
abstract: Metastasis, the spread of malignant cells from a primary tumor to distant sites, poses the biggest problem to cancer treatment and is the main cause of death of cancer patients. It occurs in a series of discrete steps, which have been modeled into a "metastatic cascade". In this review, we comprehensively describe the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the different steps, including Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), invasion, anoikis, angiogenesis, transport through vessels and outgrowth of secondary tumors. Furthermore, we implement recent findings that have broadened and challenged the classical view on the metastatic cascade, for example the establishment of a "premetastatic niche", the requirement of stem cell-like properties, the role of the tumor stroma and paracrine interactions of the tumor with cells in distant anatomical sites. A better understanding of the molecular processes underlying metastasis will conceivably present us with novel targets for therapeutic intervention.
authors.affiliation: Division of Molecular Genetics, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Thomas R
authors.initials: TR
authors.lastname: Geiger
authors.forename: Daniel S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Peeper
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D023102:Anoikis; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D002465:Cell Movement; D004847:Epithelial Cells / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D008648:Mesoderm / Q000473:pathology; D009361:Neoplasm Invasiveness; D009362:Neoplasm Metastasis; D014411:Neoplastic Stem Cells / Q000473:pathology; D009389:Neovascularization, Pathologic / Q000209:etiology