title: Evaluation of field and laboratory protocols used to detect avian influenza viruses in wild aquatic birds.
abstract: Careful selection and observance of standard field and laboratory protocols are critical for successful detection and characterization of avian influenza viruses (AIV) from wild birds. Cloacal swabs were collected from hunter-killed or nesting waterfowl and shorebirds from wildlife refuges in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida during 2006 to 2008. Swab samples were inoculated into embryonated eggs followed by hemagglutination (HA) test to determine the presence of hemagglutinating agents. Antigen capture-ELISA (AC-ELISA) and real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RRT-PCR) were used to detect AIV from both allantoic fluids (AF) and swab specimens of HA-positive samples. Hemagglutination inhibition test was used to detect Newcastle disease virus, another hemagglutinating virus common in wild birds. The HA-positive AF were sent to the National Veterinary Services Laboratory for subtyping of the isolates. Out of 825 samples tested, 19 AIV and 3 avian paramyxovirus subtypes were identified by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory. Without egg passage, AC-ELISA did not detect virus, whereas matrix gene of 13 AIV were detected using RRT-PCR. When testing was done on AF, 14 were positive for influenza A by AC-ELISA and 20 by RRT-PCR. Antigen capture-ELISA did not detect influenza A when the HA titer was lower than 125, whereas RRT-PCR detected AIV from AF with HA titer as low as 4. The highest isolation rate was from Florida, where out of 109 samples analyzed, 14 AIV were detected by RRT-PCR from AF. Real-time reverse transcription-PCR was more sensitive, specific, and cost-effective than AC-ELISA. However, to avoid false-negative results, testing should be performed on AF and not directly from cloacal swabs. Our procedures to detect AIV directly from cloacal swabs need further optimization for improved sensitivity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Poultry Science, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, 260 Lem Morrison Drive, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
authors.forename: T V
authors.initials: TV
authors.lastname: Dormitorio
authors.forename: J J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Giambrone
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Guo
authors.forename: G R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Hepp
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild; D046090:Anseriformes; D002988:Cloaca / Q000821:virology; D004797:Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / Q000662:veterinary; D006386:Hemagglutination Tests / Q000662:veterinary; D009980:Influenza A virus / Q000145:classification* / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D005585:Influenza in Birds / Q000821:virology*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary