Waves of resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the antibiotic era.
Staphylococcus aureus is notorious for its ability to become resistant to antibiotics. Infections that are caused by antibiotic-resistant strains often occur in epidemic waves that are initiated by one or a few successful clones. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) features prominently in these epidemics. Historically associated with hospitals and other health care settings, MRSA has now emerged as a widespread cause of community infections. Community or community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can spread rapidly among healthy individuals. Outbreaks of CA-MRSA infections have been reported worldwide, and CA-MRSA strains are now epidemic in the United States. Here, we review the molecular epidemiology of the epidemic waves of penicillin- and methicillin-resistant strains of S. aureus that have occurred since 1940, with a focus on the clinical and molecular epidemiology of CA-MRSA.
Chambers
Henry F
HF
Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, California 94110, USA. hchambers@medsfgh.ucsf.edu
Deleo
Frank R
FR
D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D017714:Community-Acquired Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology; D003428:Cross Infection / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D006801:Humans; D016106:Methicillin Resistance; D017720:Molecular Epidemiology; D010403:Penicillin Resistance; D013203:Staphylococcal Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology; D013211:Staphylococcus aureus / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000302:isolation & purification
D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 May;61(5):976-94
18339633
Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Nov 15;37(10):1384-8
14583874
BMC Microbiol. 2007 Apr 12;7:30
17430587
Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jun 1;46(11):1637-46
18433335
Can J Microbiol. 1956 May;2(3):346-58
13316630
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005 Nov;56(5):923-9
16195255
J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Dec;45(12):3992-5
17942647
J Clin Microbiol. 2009 Jan;47(1):73-8
18971362
Microb Drug Resist. 2004 Summer;10(2):106-13
15256025
Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Mar 1;46(5):752-60
18220477
Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Nov;29(5):1128-32
10524952
J Clin Microbiol. 2004 May;42(5):2080-4
15131173
Gene. 1998 Jul 17;215(1):57-67
9666077
Infect Immun. 2009 May;77(5):2159-67
19237525
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Mar;38(3):1008-15
10698988
J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Nov;44(11):3883-6
16957043
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Aug 14;98(17):9865-70
11481426
Cell Microbiol. 2007 May;9(5):1172-90
17217429
Ophthalmology. 2006 Aug;113(8):1455-62
16766029
Infect Genet Evol. 2008 Dec;8(6):747-63
18718557
Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009 Feb;15(2):156-64
19154186
Microbiology (Reading). 2007 Jul;153(Pt 7):2093-2103
17600054
Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Sep 1;41(5):583-90
16080077
Lancet Infect Dis. 2006 Jun;6(6):335-41
16728319
Clin Microbiol Infect. 2006 Dec;12(12):1175-84
17121623
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Dec;52(12):4442-7
18838596
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Jul;48(7):2637-51
15215121
Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Oct;13(10):1533-40
18258003
J Hosp Infect. 1995 Feb;29(2):87-106
7759837
N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 7;352(14):1436-44
15814879
Microb Drug Resist. 2001 Winter;7(4):349-61
11822775
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Feb;53(2):442-9
19001111
JAMA. 1998 Feb 25;279(8):593-8
9486753
J Hosp Infect. 2008 Dec;70(4):314-20
18848735
Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Jun 15;40(12):1785-91
15909267
J Hosp Infect. 1993 Oct;25(2):97-108
7903093
J Immunol. 2005 Sep 15;175(6):3907-19
16148137
Infect Immun. 2009 Jan;77(1):266-73
18838523
Lancet. 2005 Apr 2-8;365(9466):1256-8
15811459
J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Oct;42(10):4735-43
15472334
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 Aug 27;53(33):767-70
15329653
Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Feb;13(2):236-42
17479885
J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Jul;43(7):3341-5
16000458
J Infect Dis. 2008 Aug 1;198(3):336-43
18522502
J Clin Invest. 2005 Nov;115(11):3117-27
16276417
J Bacteriol. 2004 Mar;186(5):1518-30
14973027
J Clin Pathol. 1964 May;17:243-50
14159451
J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Nov;41(11):5113-20
14605147
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002 Apr;46(4):1147-52
11897611
J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Jun;45(6):1705-11
17392441
Mol Microbiol. 2007 Dec;66(5):1136-47
17961141
Arch Intern Med. 2008 Jul 28;168(14):1585-91
18663172
Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008 Apr;14(4):370-6
18190563
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1972 Mar;1(3):235-6
4483685
Biochem J. 1964 Mar;90(3):498-509
4220730
Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Feb;14(2):304-7
18258126
Pediatrics. 2005 Mar;115(3):642-8
15741366
J Paediatr Child Health. 2007 Oct;43(10):656-61
17608655
J Infect Dis. 2008 Oct 15;198(8):1166-70
18729780
Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Jun;11(6):844-50
15963278
PLoS One. 2008 Sep 12;3(9):e3198
18787708
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Oct;60(4):788-94
17623693
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Jun;49(6):2260-6
15917519
Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Mar 1;42(5):647-56
16447110
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Aug;49(8):3239-50
16048932
N Engl J Med. 2008 Nov 13;359(20):2177-9
19005205
Med J Aust. 1958 Dec 13;45(24):789-95
13612474
J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jul;46(7):2345-52
18508934
J Bacteriol. 2006 Jan;188(2):669-76
16385056
Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2008 Feb;9(2):201-9
18246523
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 May;45(5):1323-36
11302791
Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Aug;9(8):978-84
12967497
J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Sep;46(9):2837-41
18632911
Arch Intern Med. 2007 Sep 24;167(17):1861-7
17893307
J Infect Dis. 2006 Jan 15;193(2):172-9
16362880
N Engl J Med. 2006 Aug 17;355(7):666-74
16914702
JAMA. 1999 Sep 22-29;282(12):1123-5
10501104
Science. 2003 Nov 28;302(5650):1569-71
14645850
Ann Pharmacother. 2008 Jun;42(6):806-16
18477729
J Infect. 2008 Aug;57(2):110-5
18533269
Nat Med. 2007 Dec;13(12):1405-6
18064027
Curr Opin Microbiol. 2004 Jun;7(3):308-13
15196500
Infect Immun. 2003 Jul;71(7):3724-9
12819053
Can J Infect Dis. 2003 Sep;14(5):249-51
18159464
N Engl J Med. 1998 Aug 20;339(8):520-32
9709046
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Sep 16;105(37):14130-5
18772392
Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Apr;13(4):594-600
17553275
N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 7;352(14):1445-53
15814880
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Mar;59(3):465-72
17289763
Ann Emerg Med. 2009 Mar;53(3):358-65
18534715
J Bacteriol. 2006 Feb;188(4):1310-5
16452413
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006 Oct;50(10):3237-44
17005800
Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 1;45(9):e113-7
17918070
Mol Microbiol. 1998 Oct;30(2):393-404
9791183
Biochem J. 1960 Apr;75:158-65
13845860
N Engl J Med. 2005 Feb 3;352(5):468-75
15689585
J Clin Microbiol. 2002 Nov;40(11):4289-94
12409412
J Clin Microbiol. 1999 Nov;37(11):3556-63
10523551
Emerg Infect Dis. 2009 May;15(5):727-34
19402958
Science. 2007 Feb 23;315(5815):1130-3
17234914
N Engl J Med. 2002 Feb 14;346(7):491-6
11844850
Ann Intern Med. 1980 Oct;93(4):526-32
6904159
J Hosp Infect. 2009 Jul;72(3):269-71
19481297
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Jan 29;105(4):1327-32
18216255
J Clin Pathol. 1961 Jul;14:385-93
13686776
Science. 1960 Oct 28;132(3435):1247-8
17801672
N Engl J Med. 1968 Aug 29;279(9):441-8
4232865
J Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;171(3):607-13
7533198
Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008 Nov;62(3):343-7
18715738
FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2008 Jan;32(1):23-37
17983441
Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Jun 15;38(12):1673-81
15227611
J Clin Microbiol. 2005 May;43(5):2384-90
15872271
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001 Jul;48(1):143-4
11418528
Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Nov;14(11):1693-9
18976551
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006 Oct;50(10):3457-9
17005831
Lancet. 2002 Mar 2;359(9308):753-9
11888586
Med J Aust. 2008 Aug 4;189(3):179-80
18673113
Clin Ther. 2003 Mar;25(3):980-92
12852712
Ann Intern Med. 2008 Feb 19;148(4):249-57
18283202
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Jun;49(6):2283-8
15917522
Infect Immun. 1994 Aug;62(8):3184-8
8039887
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2006 Oct;27(10):1051-6
17006811
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 May 28;99(11):7687-92
12032344
J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Sep;46(9):2842-7
18614654
Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003 Aug;22(8):677-86
12913766
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007 Oct;26(10):723-7
17636366
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Apr;52(4):1330-6
18227177
Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2006 Nov 10;5:26
17096847
Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2006 Sep;17 Suppl C:4C-24C
23365589
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Jan;48(1):285-96
14693553
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Aug;60(2):402-5
17562682
Ann Emerg Med. 1985 Jan;14(1):15-9
3880635
J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Jul;42(7):3185-90
15243080
J Exp Med. 2008 Feb 18;205(2):287-94
18268041
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2003 May;24(5):362-86
12785411
J Infect Dis. 2008 Jun 1;197(11):1523-30
18700257
J Infect Dis. 2008 May 1;197(9):1226-34
18422434
J Infect Dis. 2008 Aug 15;198(4):561-70
18598194
Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2009 Mar;23(1):17-34
19135914
J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Dec;42(12):5673-80
15583298
Curr Eye Res. 2001 Jun;22(6):451-7
11584345
J Clin Microbiol. 2009 Aug;47(8):2655-7
19494064
J Bacteriol. 2003 Jun;185(11):3307-16
12754228
N Engl J Med. 2006 Aug 17;355(7):653-65
16914701
Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Aug 1;45(3):315-21
17599308
N Engl J Med. 2005 Sep 22;353(12):1245-51
16177250
JAMA. 2007 Oct 17;298(15):1763-71
17940231
Infect Immun. 1998 Jul;66(7):3050-8
9632565
Lancet. 2006 Mar 4;367(9512):731-9
16517273
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009 Feb;30(2):146-55
19128184
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 Nov;62 Suppl 2:ii65-74
18819981
Intern Med J. 2008 Apr;38(4):283-7
18380704
Microbiol Rev. 1991 Dec;55(4):733-51
1779933
Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Oct 15;43(8):953-60
16983604
Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41(1):4-9
18821135
Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2008 Jan;3(1):10-33
18221183
J Infect Dis. 2004 May 1;189(9):1565-73
15116291
Lancet. 1997 Dec 6;350(9092):1670-3
9400512
Microb Drug Resist. 1996 Winter;2(4):435-41
9158816
Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Jan 1;40(1):100-7
15614698
Am J Med. 2006 Nov;119(11):943-51
17071162
J Infect Dis. 1998 Aug;178(2):577-80
9697748
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Dec;47(12):3926-34
14638503
J Infect Dis. 2006 Dec 15;194(12):1761-70
17109350
J Infect Dis. 1979 Mar;139(3):280-7
255553
Lancet. 2006 Sep 2;368(9538):874-85
16950365
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008 Jan;27(1):3-15
17899228
Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997 Jul;10(3):505-20
9227864
J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jan;46(1):62-8
17989197
Nat Med. 2007 Dec;13(12):1510-4
17994102
Scand J Infect Dis. 2007;39(9):764-8
17701713
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Apr 7;106(14):5883-8
19293374
Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2008 May;31(5):401-10
18342492
Cell Microbiol. 2006 Aug;8(8):1282-93
16882032
Med J Aust. 1955 Jul 30;42(5):157-61
13253118
Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004 Feb;23(2):123-7
14872177
Science. 1944 Jun 2;99(2579):452-3
17798398
Mini Rev Med Chem. 2007 Dec;7(12):1236-47
18220976
FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2006 Feb;46(1):8-20
16420592
Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007 Mar;13(3):222-35
17391376
CMAJ. 2006 Jul 18;175(2):149-54
16804118
Lancet. 1948 Oct 23;2(6530):641-4
18890505