Strategies for regenerating injured axons after spinal cord injury - insights from brain development.
Axonal regeneration does not occur easily after an adult central nervous system (CNS) injury. Various attempts have partially succeeded in promoting axonal regeneration after the spinal cord injury (SCI). Interestingly, several recent therapeutic concepts have emerged from or been tightly linked to the researches on brain development. In a developing brain, remarkable and dynamic axonal elongation and sprouting occur even after the injury; this finding is essential to the development of a therapy for SCI. In this review, we overview the revealed mechanism of axonal tract formation and plasticity in the developing brain and compare the differences between a developing brain and a lesion site in an adult brain. One of the differences is that mature glial cells participate in the repair process in the case of adult injuries. Interestingly, these cells express inhibitory molecules that impede axonal regeneration such as myelin-associated proteins and the repulsive guidance molecules found originally in the developing brain for navigating axons to specific routes. Some reports have clearly elucidated that any treatment designed to suppress these inhibitory cues is beneficial for promoting regeneration and plasticity after an injury. Thus, understanding the developmental process will provide us with an important clue for designing therapeutic strategies for recovery from SCI.
Ueno
Masaki
M
Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, 2-2, Yamadaoka, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
Yamashita
Toshihide
T
J Neurosci. 2003 Aug 27;23(21):7789-800
12944508
Nat Med. 1998 Jul;4(7):814-21
9662373
J Neurosci. 2004 Mar 3;24(9):2182-90
14999069
J Neurosci. 1998 May 15;18(10):3803-15
9570810
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Nov 6;104(45):17837-42
17978191
J Anat. 1999 Jan;194 ( Pt 1):15-32
10227663
J Neurosci. 1996 Apr 15;16(8):2508-21
8786427
Neuron. 2003 Apr 24;38(2):187-99
12718854
Neuron. 2004 Oct 28;44(3):439-51
15504325
Nat Neurosci. 2002 Dec;5(12):1302-8
12426574
J Neurosci. 2007 Jul 18;27(29):7751-61
17634369
Nature. 1983 Jul 7-13;304(5921):62-5
6866090
J Neurotrauma. 2001 Feb;18(2):203-15
11229712
Neuron. 2001 Jan;29(1):85-97
11182083
J Neurochem. 2002 Sep;82(6):1566-9
12354307
Nature. 2000 Jan 27;403(6768):434-9
10667796
J Neurosci. 2008 Jan 30;28(5):1099-108
18234888
Neuron. 2005 Feb 3;45(3):345-51
15694321
Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Sep-Oct;77(1-2):57-89
16271433
Nature. 1994 Jan 13;367(6459):170-3
8114912
Neuron. 2002 Jul 18;35(2):283-90
12160746
Neuron. 2003 May 8;38(3):389-401
12741987
J Comp Neurol. 1979 May 1;185(1):1-21
429610
Neuroscience. 1994 Mar;59(1):33-41
8190270
J Cell Biol. 2002 May 13;157(4):565-70
12011108
Science. 1995 Mar 17;267(5204):1662-6
7886458
Nat Neurosci. 2007 Oct;10(10):1294-9
17828256
J Neurosci. 2006 May 24;26(21):5591-603
16723516
J Cell Biol. 2000 Apr 17;149(2):263-70
10769020
J Comp Neurol. 1983 Dec 20;221(4):382-400
6662981
Brain Res. 2006 Apr 21;1084(1):16-27
16616050
J Neurosci. 2003 Feb 15;23(4):1424-31
12598631
J Neurosci. 2004 Nov 17;24(46):10511-20
15548666
Neuron. 2003 Apr 24;38(2):201-11
12718855
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jun;87(11):4130-3
2349222
J Neurochem. 2008 May;105(4):1471-9
18221366
Genes Dev. 2001 Apr 1;15(7):877-88
11297511
Nat Neurosci. 2004 Mar;7(3):269-77
14966523
Neuron. 1997 Jul;19(1):63-76
9247264
J Neurosci. 2001 Apr 15;21(8):2749-58
11306627
Neuron. 2003 Apr 24;38(2):213-24
12718856
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005 Nov;6(11):877-88
16261181
J Neurosci Res. 2003 Feb 1;71(3):427-44
12526031
Nat Neurosci. 2003 May;6(5):461-7
12692556
Neuroscience. 1995 Nov;69(2):619-26
8552254
Exp Neurol. 1993 Sep;123(1):3-16
8405277
J Neurotrauma. 2003 Oct;20(10):1029-37
14588119
Exp Neurol. 1984 May;84(2):374-85
6370713
Curr Biol. 2001 Nov 13;11(22):1766-70
11719218
Nature. 1994 Jan 13;367(6459):167-70
8114911
Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):433-43
9417823
Neuron. 1994 Oct;13(4):805-11
7524558
FASEB J. 2006 Jun;20(8):1239-41
16636109
J Neurosci. 2004 Nov 10;24(45):10064-73
15537875
Nat Neurosci. 2004 Mar;7(3):221-8
14966521
Development. 2005 May;132(10):2251-62
15857918
Mol Neurobiol. 2005 Oct;32(2):105-11
16215275
Exp Neurol. 1994 Oct;129(2):225-36
7957737
J Comp Neurol. 1989 Apr 15;282(3):355-70
2715387
J Cell Biol. 2006 Apr 10;173(1):47-58
16585268
J Neurosci. 1998 Oct 1;18(19):7800-10
9742149
Neuron. 2002 Jul 3;35(1):51-63
12123608
Exp Neurol. 1995 Feb;131(2):211-20
7895822
Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2007 Feb;17(1):29-34
17169551
Mol Cell Neurosci. 2005 May;29(1):26-39
15866044
Neuroscience. 2005;130(4):875-87
15652986
Brain Res. 2007 Dec;1186:74-86
17996222
J Neurosci. 2004 Mar 3;24(9):2143-55
14999065
J Neurosci. 2005 Feb 2;25(5):1169-78
15689553
Neuroscience. 1989;31(2):439-52
2797445
EMBO Rep. 2003 Aug;4(8):761-5
12897799
Nat Med. 2006 Jul;12(7):829-34
16783372
Exp Neurol. 2003 Aug;182(2):399-411
12895450
Science. 1981 Nov 20;214(4523):931-3
6171034
Neuron. 1990 Nov;5(5):735-43
2171592
Dev Biol. 1990 Apr;138(2):359-76
1690673
Nature. 2002 Jun 27;417(6892):941-4
12068310
Nature. 2003 Jul 24;424(6947):398-405
12879062
Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005 May;4(5):387-98
15864268
J Neurosci. 2004 Jul 7;24(27):6209-17
15240813
Science. 1997 Sep 26;277(5334):2000-2
9302296
Nature. 2001 Nov 1;414(6859):112-7
11689956
Science. 2002 Nov 8;298(5596):1248-51
12424383
J Neurosci. 1997 Jul 15;17(14):5560-72
9204937
Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1999 Feb 5;112(2):189-204
9878731
Exp Neurol. 1999 Aug;158(2):351-65
10415142
Eur J Neurosci. 2006 Nov;24(10):2758-68
17156202
Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):475-94
9417827
J Neurochem. 2006 Jun;97(5):1314-26
16638021
Exp Neurol. 1993 Sep;123(1):106-17
8405271
Nature. 1995 Nov 30;378(6556):498-501
7477407
J Neurosci. 2004 Jan 14;24(2):542-6
14724254
Nature. 2000 Jan 27;403(6768):439-44
10667797
J Neurosci Res. 2002 Jul 15;69(2):160-8
12111797
J Neurocytol. 1989 Apr;18(2):161-9
2471819
Lancet Neurol. 2004 Dec;3(12):744-51
15556807
Physiol Rev. 1996 Apr;76(2):319-70
8618960
Curr Pharm Des. 2007;13(24):2493-9
17692017
Neurotoxicology. 2001 Oct;22(5):619-24
11770883
J Neurosci. 2002 Aug 1;22(15):6670-81
12151546
Brain. 2004 Jun;127(Pt 6):1403-14
15069022
Neuroscience. 2004;127(1):155-64
15219678
Mol Cell Neurosci. 2003 Mar;22(3):319-30
12691734
Neuron. 1995 Dec;15(6):1375-81
8845160
Science. 1983 Jun 3;220(4601):1067-9
6844928
Neuron. 1988 Dec;1(10):901-10
3272157
Exp Neurol. 2002 May;175(1):61-75
12009760
J Neurosci. 1990 Nov;10(11):3594-603
2230948
Neuron. 1994 Sep;13(3):757-67
7522484
J Biol. 2006;5(3):7
16643674
Nature. 2001 Jan 18;409(6818):341-6
11201742
Neuron. 1999 Sep;24(1):127-41
10677032
Neuron. 2005 Feb 3;45(3):353-9
15694322
Nature. 2000 Jan 27;403(6768):383-4
10667780
Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1991 Jan 15;58(1):1-12
2015649
Brain Res Rev. 2007 Feb;53(2):344-54
17188751
Mol Cell Neurosci. 2006 Nov;33(3):311-20
17011208
Science. 1998 Dec 4;282(5395):1904-6
9836643
Brain Res. 1979 Mar 23;164:61-8
427571
Eur J Neurosci. 1995 Apr 1;7(4):613-21
7620612
J Neurosci. 2002 Dec 1;22(23):10346-56
12451134
Nature. 2002 Sep 26;419(6905):392-5
12353034
Nature. 2002 Nov 7;420(6911):74-8
12422217
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2003;26:509-63
12677003
Neuron. 2002 Jan 17;33(2):233-48
11804571
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006 Aug;7(8):603-16
16858389
Exp Neurol. 1994 Aug;128(2):233-8
8076667
Nature. 1995 Nov 9;378(6553):189-91
7477322
Nat Neurosci. 2005 Sep;8(9):1151-9
16116452
Glia. 2003 Jun;42(4):424-32
12730963
Science. 2002 Aug 16;297(5584):1190-3
12089450
Glia. 2006 Jan 1;53(1):103-13
16206158
Nature. 2000 Apr 6;404(6778):567-73
10766232
Neurobiol Dis. 2000 Dec;7(6 Pt B):574-85
11114257
Cell. 2006 Apr 7;125(1):127-42
16615895
Nat Med. 2006 Dec;12(12):1380-9
17099709
J Neurosci. 2006 Nov 22;26(47):12242-50
17122049
Eur J Neurosci. 2005 Mar;21(6):1569-76
15845084
Eur J Neurosci. 2007 Apr;25(7):1931-9
17439482
Neuroscience. 1994 Jul;61(1):133-9
7969888
J Neurosci Res. 1994 Jun 1;38(2):221-33
8078107
J Neurosci. 2002 May 1;22(9):3553-67
11978832
Trends Neurosci. 2006 Feb;29(2):68-74
16406093
J Neurosci. 2007 Mar 7;27(10):2596-605
17344397
Science. 2005 Sep 30;309(5744):2222-6
16195464
Neurosci Res. 1986 Sep;3(6):617-27
3774241
J Neurosci. 2003 May 15;23(10):4219-27
12764110
Nature. 2002 Apr 11;416(6881):636-40
11948352
J Neurosci. 2007 Feb 28;27(9):2176-85
17329414
J Neurosci. 1991 Nov;11(11):3398-411
1719160
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Mar 13;98(6):3513-8
11248109
Exp Neurol. 1993 Mar;120(1):1-15
7682966
Anat Embryol (Berl). 1989;179(5):449-56
2729608
Nature. 1990 Jan 18;343(6255):269-72
2300171
J Neurosci. 2002 Aug 1;22(15):6570-7
12151536
J Neurosci Res. 1997 Jan 1;47(1):34-48
8981236
Brain. 2006 Jun;129(Pt 6):1534-45
16632552
J Neurosci. 2003 Feb 15;23(4):1416-23
12598630
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jan 25;102(4):1205-10
15647357
Neuron. 1994 Oct;13(4):791-803
7946329
Eur J Neurosci. 2005 Nov;22(9):2134-44
16262652
Nature. 1980 Mar 20;284(5753):264-5
7360259