title: Gene doping: possibilities and practicalities.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Our ever-increasing understanding of the genetic control of cardiovascular and musculoskeletal function together with recent technical improvements in genetic manipulation generates mounting concern over the possibility of such technology being abused by athletes in their quest for improved performance. Genetic manipulation in the context of athletic performance is commonly referred to as gene doping.
  
  
  METHODS
  A review of the literature was performed to identify the genes and methodologies most likely to be used for gene doping and the technologies that might be used to identify such doping.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A large number of candidate performance-enhancing genes have been identified from animal studies, many of them using transgenic mice. Only a limited number have been shown to be effective following gene transfer into adults. Those that seem most likely to be abused are genes that exert their effects locally and leave little, if any, trace in blood or urine.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is currently no evidence that gene doping has yet been undertaken in competitive athletes but the anti-doping authorities will need to remain vigilant in reviewing this rapidly emerging technology. The detection of gene doping involves some different challenges from other agents and a number of promising approaches are currently being explored.
authors.forename: Dominic J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Wells
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001265:Athletic Injuries / Q000628:therapy; D054874:Athletic Performance; D004300:Doping in Sports; D024861:Genetic Enhancement; D006801:Humans; D020127:Recovery of Function; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection