title: CRISPR analysis of bacteriophage-insensitive mutants (BIMs) of industrial Streptococcus thermophilus--implications for starter design.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  An efficient approach for generation of bacteriophage-insensitive mutants (BIMs) of Streptococcus thermophilus starters was described in our laboratory [Mills et al. (2007) J Microbiol Methods70, 159-164]. The aim of this study was to analyse the phage resistance mechanism responsible for BIM formation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Three clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) regions have been identified in Strep. thermophilus, and Strep. thermophilus can integrate novel spacers into these loci in response to phage attack. Characterization of three sets of BIMs indicated that two sets had altered CRISPR1 and/or CRISPR3 loci. A range of BIMs of yoghurt starter CSK938 were generated with the same phage in different phage challenge experiments, and each acquired unique spacer regions ranging between one and four new spacers in CRISPR1. In addition, the BIM that acquired only one new spacer in CRISPR1 also acquired an additional spacer in CRISPR3. A fourth BIM, generated with a different phage, had two spacers deleted from CRISPR1 but acquired two spacers in CRISPR3. Analysis of the Mozzarella starter CSK939 and its associated BIMs indicated that formation of second generation BIMs does not lead to increases in spacer number but to alterations in spacer regions. BIMs of an exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing strain that lost the ability to produce EPS did not harbour an altered CRISPR, suggesting that phage sensitivity may be related to the EPS-producing phenotype.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Acquisition/deletion of new spacers in CRISPR loci in response to phage attack generates distinctly individual variants. It also demonstrates that other modifications may be responsible for the phage resistance of Strep. thermophilus BIMs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Isolation of individual BIMs that have unique spacers towards the leader region of the CRISPR locus may be a very useful approach for rotation strategies with the same starter backbone. Upon phage infection, BIMs 'in reserve' can be slotted into the rotation scheme.
authors.affiliation:  Teagasc, Moorepark Food Research Centre, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.| CSK Food Enrichment, Ede, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mills
authors.affiliation:  Teagasc, Moorepark Food Research Centre, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.| CSK Food Enrichment, Ede, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Griffin
authors.affiliation:  Department of Biological Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Coffey
authors.affiliation:  CSK Food Enrichment, Ede, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: W C
authors.initials: WC
authors.lastname: Meijer
authors.affiliation:  CSK Food Enrichment, Ede, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Hafkamp
authors.affiliation:  Teagasc, Moorepark Food Research Centre, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.| Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: R P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Ross
mesh_terms: D019295:Computational Biology; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D021901:DNA, Intergenic / Q000235:genetics; D005516:Food Microbiology; D055029:Inverted Repeat Sequences / Q000235:genetics*; D010641:Phenotype; D017108:Streptococcus Phages / Q000502:physiology*; D048249:Streptococcus thermophilus / Q000235:genetics* / Q000821:virology*; D015014:Yogurt / Q000382:microbiology
chemical_list: D004269:DNA, Bacterial; D021901:DNA, Intergenic