title: Trends in long-term opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To report trends and characteristics of long-term opioid use for non-cancer pain.
  
  
  METHODS
  CONSORT (CONsortium to Study Opioid Risks and Trends) includes adult enrollees of two health plans serving over 1 per cent of the US population. Using automated data, we constructed episodes of opioid use between 1997 and 2005. We estimated age-sex standardized rates of opioid use episodes beginning in each year (incident) and on-going in each year (prevalent), and the per cent change in rates annualized (PCA) over the 9-year period. Long-term episodes were defined as > 90 days with 120+ days supply or 10+ opioid prescriptions in a given year.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Over the study period, incident long-term use increased from 8.5 to 12.1 per 1000 at Group Health (GH) (6.0% PCA), and 6.3 to 8.6 per 1000 at Kaiser Permanente of Northern California (KPNC) (5.5% PCA). Prevalent long-term use doubled from 23.9 to 46.8 per 1000 at GH (8.5% PCA), and 21.5 to 39.2 per 1000 at KPNC (8.1% PCA). Non-Schedule II opioids were the most commonly used opioid among patients engaged in long-term opioid therapy, particularly at KPNC. Long-term use of Schedule II opioids also increased substantially at both health plans. Among prevalent long-term users in 2005, 28.6% at GH and 30.2% at KPNC were also regular users of sedative hypnotics.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Long-term opioid therapy for non-cancer pain is increasingly prevalent, but the benefits and risks associated with such therapy are inadequately understood. Concurrent use of opioids and sedative-hypnotics was unexpectedly common and deserves further study.
authors.affiliation: Group Health Center for Health Studies, 1730 Minor Avenue, Seattle, WA 98101, USA. boudreau.d@ghc.org
authors.forename: Denise
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Boudreau
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Von Korff
authors.forename: Carolyn M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Rutter
authors.forename: Kathleen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Saunders
authors.forename: G Thomas
authors.initials: GT
authors.lastname: Ray
authors.forename: Mark D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Sullivan
authors.forename: Cynthia I
authors.initials: CI
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.forename: Joseph O
authors.initials: JO
authors.lastname: Merrill
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Silverberg
authors.forename: Caleb
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Banta-Green
authors.forename: Constance
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Weisner
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004334:Drug Administration Schedule; D011307:Drug Prescriptions / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004363:Drug Utilization / Q000639:trends; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008134:Long-Term Care / Q000639:trends; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010146:Pain / Q000145:classification / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology; D010147:Pain Measurement / Q000379:methods; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid