title: The association of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency with diabetic nephropathy: implications for health disparities.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the association between vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency with diabetic nephropathy across racial/ethnic groups.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional analysis of the 2001 to 2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. A nationally representative sample of 1216 adults (> or =20 years old) with diagnosed diabetes provides population estimates for >12.6 million individuals. Nephropathy was defined as urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio > or =30 mg/g in a random spot urine sample. Serum 25-hydroxycalciferol vitamin D levels were characterized as <20 ng/mL vitamin D deficiency, 20 to 29 ng/mL vitamin D insufficiency, and > or =30 ng/mL normal vitamin D.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, 30.7% of adults with diabetes have nephropathy, 48.9% have vitamin D deficiency and 36.6% have vitamin D insufficiency. Minorities are more likely to have nephropathy (non-Hispanic whites, 27.8%; non-Hispanic blacks, 36.2%; Hispanics 38.5%; P = .02) and vitamin D deficiency (non-Hispanic whites, 39.5%; non-Hispanic blacks, 80.4%; Hispanic, 59.0%; P < .01). Higher proportions of individuals with nephropathy have vitamin D deficiency than individuals without nephropathy (53.2% vs 47.0%; P = .03). Logistic regressions demonstrate vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency are associated with the presence of nephropathy after adjustment for race/ethnicity, age, sex, hypertension, high cholesterol, smoking status, and use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (odds ratio, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.06-3.23 for vitamin D deficiency; and odds ratio, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.12-2.85 for vitamin D insufficiency).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in individuals with diabetes; minorities have the highest prevalences. Thus, evaluating vitamin D levels in people with diabetes may be warranted. There is an independent association between vitamin D deficiency and vitamin D insufficiency with the presence of nephropathy, even after adjustment for race/ethnicity and other variables. Further studies of this relationship may lead to new interventions that decrease health disparities in the progression of diabetic nephropathy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA. diazva@musc.edu
authors.forename: Vanessa A
authors.initials: VA
authors.lastname: Diaz
authors.forename: Arch G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Mainous
authors.forename: Peter J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Carek
authors.forename: Andrea M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Wessell
authors.forename: Charles J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Everett
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003928:Diabetic Nephropathies / Q000208:ethnology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005260:Female; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000150:complications* / Q000208:ethnology; D055815:Young Adult