title: Developments in musculoskeletal ultrasound and clinical applications.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Ultrasound (US) technologies are rapidly advancing, offering several refined transducer technologies as well as soft and hardware facilities. The aim of this article is to outline US developments, from B-mode technologies over Doppler advances to more sophisticated technologies, and their potential clinical impact in the field of musculoskeletal (MSK) imaging.
  When using B-mode ultrasound, compound imaging and beam-steering are of help to decrease anisotropy in tendons and ligaments, that are less well depicted due to their oblique course. Doppler imaging has become sensitive in the detection of flow in small vessels, which is of particular value in rheumatologic conditions, tumour and overuse assessment. The use of US microbubble contrast agents improves detection of low-volume blood flow in smaller vessels by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio and thereby facilitating detection of angiogenetic vessels in inflammatory conditions or tumours. The use of US blood pool contrast agents enables molecular imaging in real-time, and thus the diagnostic potential of US is expanded, opening up a new field of US applications. Objective quantification of altered tissue (e.g., synovial proliferation, tumours) is still demanding and might be improved by the use of three-dimensional imaging and software tools as parametric evaluation. Real-time sonoelastography (EUS) is a new development for visualization of tissue elasticity by measurement of tissue displacement in terms of tissue stiffness changes, promising new insights into tendon disorders. Image fusion is an exciting development that enables superimposition of CT/MRI data sets on real-time US scanning. This technique might be helpful in guiding injections under real-time conditions even in regions less easily accessible by US as, for instance, the axial skeleton, and can additionally provide an interesting tool for teaching MSK imaging and ways to guide interventions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In summary, exciting developments are expanding the applications of US in the MSK field, offering the advantages of real-time performance, high tissue resolution and relative speed at a reasonable cost.
authors.affiliation: Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria, Anichstrasse 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria. andrea.klauser@i-med.ac.at
authors.forename: Andrea S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Klauser
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Peetrons
mesh_terms: D003287:Contrast Media; D054459:Elasticity Imaging Techniques; D006801:Humans; D007089:Image Enhancement; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D045423:Microbubbles; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D009135:Muscular Diseases / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D018608:Ultrasonography, Doppler
chemical_list: D003287:Contrast Media