title: The combined effects of overweight and smoking in late adolescence on subsequent disability pension: a nationwide cohort study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Smoking and obesity are two of the most important risk factors for chronic disease today. Their combined effect on the risk of disability pension is not known.
  
  
  METHODS
  A nationwide cohort of 45 920 Swedish men (18.7 + or - 0.5 years) were followed for 38 years. The body mass index (BMI), based on measured height and weight, was used to define underweight (<18.5), normal weight (18.5-24.9), overweight (25.0-29.9) and obesity (> or = 30.0). The hazard ratios (HRs) associated with BMI and smoking status at baseline for receiving disability pension were adjusted for socio-economic index (SEI), muscular strength, geographic region and place of residence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  During 1.6 million person-years, 4631 disability pensions and 2897 deaths occurred. After adjustment, overweight (HR 1.34, 95% CI 1.19-1.51) and obesity (HR 1.55, 1.18-2.05) were associated with an increased risk of disability pension, independent of smoking, whereas underweight (18.5; HR 1.07, 0.97-1.17) was not compared with normal weight. Similarly, smoking 1-10 (HR 1.37, 1.27-1.49) or >10 cigarettes per day (HR 2.01, 1.86-2.17) showed independent risk increases versus non-smoking. Although obese individuals smoking >10 daily cigarettes were at greatly increased risk (HR 2.98, 1.98-4.47), no evidence of interaction between the two risk factors could be detected.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Both increased adiposity and smoking are strong and independent predictors of disability pension, but they do not act synergistically.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet, Norrbacka, Stockholm, Sweden.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Neovius
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Neovius
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Rasmussen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D015992:Body Mass Index; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004185:Disability Evaluation; D006233:Persons with Disabilities / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology; D050177:Overweight / Q000150:complications / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology; D010415:Pensions / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013548:Sweden / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult