Differential chemistry (structure), mechanism of action, and pharmacology of GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors.
OBJECTIVE
To review the pharmacology (absorption, metabolism, distribution, elimination, and contraindications) of incretin-based agents currently available and in regulatory review for the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes.


METHODS
Medline search of all relevant clinical and review articles.


METHODS
English-language articles pertinent to the pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors were reviewed for relevance.


METHODS
Data pertinent to the pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of GLP-1 agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors were extracted and used.


RESULTS
Incretin hormones are secreted from the gastrointestinal tract following meal ingestion, the two most important of which are glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and GLP-1. Patients with type 2 diabetes have an impaired response to GIP, while intravenous GLP-1 has been shown to increase insulin secretion in response to elevated glucose levels. Incretin-based agents include GLP-1 receptor agonists, which mimic endogenous GLP-1, and DPP-4 inhibitors (e.g., sitagliptin, vildagliptin, saxagliptin, alogliptin), which inhibit the breakdown of endogenous incretin hormones. GLP-1 receptor agonists stimulate insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner and suppress glucagon secretion with a low risk of hypoglycemia. The GLP-1 receptor agonists are further differentiated as either human analogues (e.g., liraglutide) or synthetic exendin-based mimetics (e.g., exenatide). These agents delay gastric emptying and may beneficially affect satiety and are thus associated with weight reduction.


CONCLUSIONS
GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors facilitate therapy intensification and achievement of established glycemic goals. They enhance postprandial and fasting glycemic control, and use may improve beta-cell function and possibly preserve beta-cell mass. GLP-1 receptor agonists may also have favorable effects on blood pressure. They may be introduced as adjuncts to ongoing therapy with conventional agents with a potential benefit of slowing the progression of type 2 diabetes.
Neumiller
Joshua J
JJ
Department of Pharmacotherapy, College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99217, USA. jneumiller@wsu.edu
D000595:Amino Acid Sequence; D000818:Animals; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000187:drug effects; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology; D018819:Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 / Q000378:metabolism; D054873:Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D005746:Gastric Emptying / Q000187:drug effects; D000067757:Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor; D006801:Humans; D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D054795:Incretins / Q000378:metabolism; D007328:Insulin / Q000378:metabolism; D050417:Insulin-Secreting Cells / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D015394:Molecular Structure; D018027:Receptors, Glucagon / Q000819:agonists* / Q000378:metabolism; D012528:Satiety Response / Q000187:drug effects; D013329:Structure-Activity Relationship; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D015431:Weight Loss / Q000187:drug effects
D001786:Blood Glucose; D054873:Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors; C000593833:GLP1R protein, human; D000067757:Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor; D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents; D054795:Incretins; D007328:Insulin; D018027:Receptors, Glucagon; C042807:DPP4 protein, human; D018819:Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4