Structured parenting of toddlers at high versus low genetic risk: two pathways to child problems.
OBJECTIVE
Little is known about how parenting might offset genetic risk to prevent the onset of child problems during toddlerhood. We used a prospective adoption design to separate genetic and environmental influences and test whether associations between structured parenting and toddler behavior problems were conditioned by genetic risk for psychopathology.


METHODS
The sample included 290 linked sets of adoptive families and birth mothers and 95 linked birth fathers. Genetic risk was assessed via birth mother and birth father psychopathology (anxiety, depression, antisociality, and drug use). Structured parenting was assessed via microsocial coding of adoptive mothers' behavior during a cleanup task. Toddler behavior problems were assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist.


RESULTS
Controlling for temperamental risk at 9 months, there was an interaction between birth mother psychopathology and adoptive mothers' parenting on toddler behavior problems at 18 months. The interaction indicated two pathways to child problems: structured parenting was beneficial for toddlers at high genetic risk but was related to behavior problems for toddlers at low genetic risk. This crossover interaction pattern was replicated with birth father psychopathology as the index of genetic risk.


CONCLUSIONS
The effects of structured parenting on toddler behavior problems varied as a function of genetic risk. Children at genetic risk might benefit from parenting interventions during toddlerhood that enhance structured parenting.
Leve
Leslie D
LD
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center. Electronic address: lesliel@oslc.org.
Harold
Gordon T
GT
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
Ge
Xiaojia
X
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
Neiderhiser
Jenae M
JM
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
Shaw
Daniel
D
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
Scaramella
Laura V
LV
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
Reiss
David
D
Dr. Leve is with the Oregon Social Learning Center; Dr. Harold is with the University of Otago; Dr. Ge is with the University of Minnesota; Dr. Neiderhiser is with the Pennsylvania State University; Dr. Shaw is with the University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Scaramella is with the University of New Orleans; and Dr. Reiss is with the Yale Child Study Center.
D000300:Adoption / Q000523:psychology; D000987:Antisocial Personality Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D001008:Anxiety Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000523:psychology*; D016241:Child of Impaired Parents / Q000523:psychology; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease / Q000235:genetics; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D016487:Parenting / Q000523:psychology*; D010552:Personality Assessment / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011594:Psychometrics; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012931:Social Environment; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D014481:United States