title: Oxidative degradation of chlorophenol derivatives promoted by microwaves or power ultrasound: a mechanism investigation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Phenols are the most common pollutants in industrial wastewaters (particularly from oil refineries, resin manufacture, and coal processing). In the last two decades, it has become common knowledge that they can be effectively destroyed by nonconventional techniques such as power ultrasound (US) and/or microwave (MW) irradiation. Both techniques may strongly promote advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). The present study aimed to shed light on the effect and mechanism of US- and MW-promoted oxidative degradation of chlorophenols; 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), a pesticide widespread in the environment, was chosen as the model compound.
  
  
  METHODS
  2,4-D degradation by AOPs was carried out either under US (20 and 300 kHz) in aqueous solutions (with and without the addition of Fenton reagent) or solvent-free under MW with sodium percarbonate (SPC). All these reactions were monitored by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis and compared with the classical Fenton reaction in water under magnetic stirring. The same set of treatments was also applied to 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) and phenol, the first two products that occur a step down in the degradation sequence. Fenton and Fenton-like reagents were employed at the lowest active concentration.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The effects of US and MW irradiation were investigated and compared with those of conventional treatments. Detailed mechanisms of Fenton-type reactions were suggested for 2,4-D, 2,4-DCP, and phenol, underlining the principal degradation products identified. MW-promoted degradation under solvent-free conditions with solid Fenton-like reagents (viz. SPC) is extremely efficient and mainly follows pyrolytic pathways. Power US strongly accelerates the degradation of 2,4-D in water through a rapid generation of highly reactive radicals; it does not lead to the formation of more toxic dimers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We show that US and MW enhance the oxidative degradation of 2,4-D and that a considerable saving of oxidants and cutting down of reaction times is thereby achieved. The results support the interpretation of previously published data and improve the understanding of the factors of direct degradation along different pathways.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Oxidative pathways for 2,4-D, 2,4-DCP, and phenol were proposed by a careful monitoring of the reactions and detection of intermediates by GC-MS.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The understanding of the factors that affect chlorophenols degradation along different pathways may facilitate the optimization of the treatment. Type of energy source (US or MW), power, and frequency to be applied could be designed in function of the operative scenario (amount of pollutant in soil, water, or oils).
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, 10125, Turin, Italy. giancarlo.cravotto@unito.it
authors.forename: Giancarlo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Cravotto
authors.forename: Arianna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Binello
authors.forename: Stefano
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Di Carlo
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Orio
authors.forename: Zhi-Lin
authors.initials: ZL
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.forename: Bernd
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Ondruschka
mesh_terms: D015084:2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid / Q000737:chemistry*; D002733:Chlorophenols / Q000737:chemistry*; D052918:Environmental Restoration and Remediation / Q000379:methods*; D005609:Free Radicals / Q000737:chemistry; D006540:Herbicides / Q000737:chemistry; D006861:Hydrogen Peroxide / Q000737:chemistry; D007501:Iron / Q000737:chemistry; D007700:Kinetics; D008872:Microwaves; D008956:Models, Chemical; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D014465:Ultrasonics; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000737:chemistry*
chemical_list: D002733:Chlorophenols; C045076:Fenton's reagent; D005609:Free Radicals; D006540:Herbicides; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D015084:2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid; D006861:Hydrogen Peroxide; D007501:Iron