Sex- and gender-based differences in healthy and diseased eyes.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study was to identify sex- and gender-based differences in ocular anatomy, physiology, and disease susceptibility or manifestation.


METHODS
Review of current indexed literature was conducted.


RESULTS
Sex and sex hormones influence the lacrimal system, eyelids and blinking, corneal anatomy and disease, aqueous humor dynamics and glaucoma, crystalline lens and cataract, uveitis and retinal disease, ocular circulation, and optic nerve anatomy and disease. Systemic conditions, particularly autoimmune disease, and conditions that are unique to women, such as pregnancy and menopause, further illustrate the effects of sex hormones on the eye. Gender-based differences in ocular conditions and disease should be considered within the context of the underlying physical and social environment.


CONCLUSIONS
Many sex- and gender-based differences exist in healthy and diseased eyes.
Wagner
Heidi
H
Nova Southeastern University College of Optometry, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33328, USA. wagner@nova.edu
Fink
Barbara A
BA
Zadnik
Karla
K
D005123:Eye / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005128:Eye Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D012016:Reference Values; D017678:Sex Distribution; D012737:Sex Factors
D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones