title: Sex- and gender-based differences in healthy and diseased eyes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The aim of this study was to identify sex- and gender-based differences in ocular anatomy, physiology, and disease susceptibility or manifestation.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review of current indexed literature was conducted.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Sex and sex hormones influence the lacrimal system, eyelids and blinking, corneal anatomy and disease, aqueous humor dynamics and glaucoma, crystalline lens and cataract, uveitis and retinal disease, ocular circulation, and optic nerve anatomy and disease. Systemic conditions, particularly autoimmune disease, and conditions that are unique to women, such as pregnancy and menopause, further illustrate the effects of sex hormones on the eye. Gender-based differences in ocular conditions and disease should be considered within the context of the underlying physical and social environment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Many sex- and gender-based differences exist in healthy and diseased eyes.
authors.affiliation: Nova Southeastern University College of Optometry, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33328, USA. wagner@nova.edu
authors.forename: Heidi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.forename: Barbara A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Fink
authors.forename: Karla
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Zadnik
mesh_terms: D005123:Eye / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005128:Eye Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D012016:Reference Values; D017678:Sex Distribution; D012737:Sex Factors
chemical_list: D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones