Implications of vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy and lactation.
Vitamin D is an essential fat soluble vitamin and a key modulator of calcium metabolism in children and adults. Because calcium demands increase in the third trimester of pregnancy, vitamin D status becomes crucial for maternal health, fetal skeletal growth, and optimal maternal and fetal outcomes. Vitamin D deficiency is common in pregnant women (5-50%) and in breastfed infants (10-56%), despite the widespread use of prenatal vitamins, because these are inadequate to maintain normal vitamin D levels (>or=32 ng/mL). Adverse health outcomes such as preeclampsia, low birthweight, neonatal hypocalcemia, poor postnatal growth, bone fragility, and increased incidence of autoimmune diseases have been linked to low vitamin D levels during pregnancy and infancy. Studies are underway to establish the recommended daily doses of vitamin D in pregnant women. This review discusses vitamin D metabolism and the implications of vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy and lactation.
Mulligan
Megan L
ML
New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
Felton
Shaili K
SK
Riek
Amy E
AE
Bernal-Mizrachi
Carlos
C
D000328:Adult; D001862:Bone Resorption / Q000503:physiopathology; D002118:Calcium / Q000378:metabolism; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000503:physiopathology; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D005260:Female; D047109:Fetal Development / Q000502:physiology; D006706:Homeostasis / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007774:Lactation / Q000378:metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D011225:Pre-Eclampsia / Q000503:physiopathology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome; D012307:Risk Factors; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000008:administration & dosage; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000628:therapy; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage
D014815:Vitamins; D014807:Vitamin D; D002118:Calcium