Epidemiological characteristics of imported and locally-acquired malaria in Singapore.
BACKGROUND
The objective of the study was to determine the trend of malaria, the epidemiological characteristics, the frequency of local transmission and the preventive and control measures taken.


METHODS
We analysed the epidemiological records of all reported malaria cases maintained by the Communicable Diseases Division, Ministry of Health, from 1983 to 2007 and the Anopheles vector surveillance data collected by the National Environment Agency during the same period.


RESULTS
The annual incidence of reported malaria ranged from 2.9 to 11.1 per 100,000 population, with a sharp decline observed after 1997. There were 38 deaths, 92.1% due to falciparum malaria and 7.9% due to vivax malaria. Of the reported cases, 91.4% to 98.3% were imported, with about 90% originating from Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Among the various population groups with imported malaria, the proportion of cases involving work permit/employment pass holders had increased, while that of local residents had decreased. Between 74.8% and 95.1% of the local residents with imported malaria did not take personal chemoprophylaxis when they travelled overseas. Despite the extremely low Anopheles vector population, a total of 29 local outbreaks involving 196 cases occurred. Most of the larger outbreaks could be traced to foreign workers with imported relapsing vivax malaria and who did not seek medical treatment early. One of the outbreaks of 3 cases in 2007 was caused by Plasmodium knowlesi, a newly recognised simian malaria which was probably acquired in a forested area where long-tail macaques had been sighted.


CONCLUSIONS
Singapore remains both vulnerable and receptive to the reintroduction of malaria and a high level of vigilance should be maintained indefinitely to prevent the re-establishment of endemicity. Medical practitioners should highlight the risk of malaria to travellers visiting endemic areas and also consider the possibility of simian malaria in a patient who has no recent travel history and presenting with daily fever spikes and with malaria parasite morphologically similar to that of P. malariae.
Lee
Yong Chee Alvin
YC
Communicable Diseases Division, Ministry of Health, Singapore. kanzenteki@yahoo.com
Tang
Choon Siang
CS
Ang
Li Wei
LW
Han
Hwi Kwang
HK
James
Lyn
L
Goh
Kee Tai
KT
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D054242:Emigrants and Immigrants; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007303:Insect Vectors; D008288:Malaria / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D016778:Malaria, Falciparum / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D016780:Malaria, Vivax / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016790:Plasmodium knowlesi; D010965:Plasmodium malariae; D011159:Population Surveillance; D012008:Recurrence; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012846:Singapore / Q000453:epidemiology; D014195:Travel; D055815:Young Adult