title: Administration of S-nitrosoglutathione after traumatic brain injury protects the neurovascular unit and reduces secondary injury in a rat model of controlled cortical impact.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of preventable death and serious morbidity in young adults. This complex pathological condition is characterized by significant blood brain barrier (BBB) leakage that stems from cerebral ischemia, inflammation, and redox imbalances in the traumatic penumbra of the injured brain. Once trauma has occurred, combating these exacerbations is the keystone of an effective TBI therapy. Following other brain injuries, nitric oxide modulators such as S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) maintain not only redox balance but also inhibit the mechanisms of secondary injury. Therefore, we tested whether GSNO shows efficacy in a rat model of experimental TBI.
  
  
  METHODS
  TBI was induced by controlled cortical impact (CCI) in adult male rats. GSNO (50 microg/kg body weight) was administered at two hours after CCI. GSNO-treated injured animals (CCI+GSNO group) were compared with vehicle-treated injured animals (CCI+VEH group) in terms of tissue morphology, BBB leakage, edema, inflammation, cell death, and neurological deficit.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Treatment of the TBI animals with GSNO reduced BBB disruption as evidenced by decreased Evan's blue extravasation across brain, infiltration/activation of macrophages (ED1 positive cells), and reduced expression of ICAM-1 and MMP-9. The GSNO treatment also restored CCI-mediated reduced expression of BBB integrity proteins ZO-1 and occludin. GSNO-mediated improvements in tissue histology shown by reduction of lesion size and decreased loss of both myelin (measured by LFB staining) and neurons (assayed by TUNEL) further support the efficacy of GSNO therapy. GSNO-mediated reduced expression of iNOS in macrophages as well as decreased neuronal cell death may be responsible for the histological improvement and reduced exacerbations. In addition to these biochemical and histological improvements, GSNO-treated injured animals recovered neurobehavioral functions as evaluated by the rotarod task and neurological score measurements.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  GSNO is a promising candidate to be evaluated in humans after brain trauma because it not only protects the traumatic penumbra from secondary injury and improves overall tissue structure but also maintains the integrity of BBB and reduces neurologic deficits following CCI in a rat model of experimental TBI.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA. khanm@musc.edu
authors.forename: Mushfiquddin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Khan
authors.forename: Yeong-Bin
authors.initials: YB
authors.lastname: Im
authors.forename: Anandakumar
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Shunmugavel
authors.forename: Anne G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Gilg
authors.forename: Ramanpreet K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Dhindsa
authors.forename: Avtar K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Singh
authors.forename: Inderjit
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Singh
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects; D001812:Blood-Brain Barrier / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D001921:Brain / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology*; D001930:Brain Injuries / Q000150:complications / Q000473:pathology; D004487:Edema / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D008264:Macrophages / Q000187:drug effects / Q000201:enzymology; D008297:Male; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 / Q000378:metabolism; D017628:Microglia / Q000187:drug effects / Q000201:enzymology; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II / Q000378:metabolism; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D011897:Random Allocation; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D026422:S-Nitrosoglutathione / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D026422:S-Nitrosoglutathione; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9