title: Glucagon-like peptide 1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide: new advances.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This article highlights recent advances in our understanding of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) physiology and their various sites of action beyond the incretin effect.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both GLP-1 and GIP stimulate insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner and are thus classified as incretins. Beyond glucose-dependent insulin secretion, the peptides have common actions on islet beta cells, leading beta-cell proliferation and resistance to apoptosis. However, the action of GLP-1 and GIP is not limited to the islet cells; they have regulatory functions in many organs. Recent evidence has suggested that GLP-1 has important beneficial effects in the cardiovascular system and central nervous system. GIP may play a role in promoting energy storage in humans, enhances bone formation via stimulation of osteoblast proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis and may play a role in central nervous system function.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These new findings suggest further application of these hormones for the treatment of conditions such as cardiovascular disease and obesity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors.forename: Meena
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Asmar
authors.forename: Jens J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Holst
mesh_terms: D017667:Adipocytes / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000502:physiology; D002320:Cardiovascular Physiological Phenomena; D002490:Central Nervous System / Q000502:physiology; D005749:Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide / Q000502:physiology*; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D050417:Insulin-Secreting Cells / Q000502:physiology; D050356:Lipid Metabolism; D017933:Peripheral Nervous System / Q000502:physiology; D011964:Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D011964:Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone; D005749:Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; C041086:gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor