title: Willingness to pay for a QALY based on community member and patient preferences for temporary health states associated with herpes zoster.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A clear sense of what society is willing to pay for a QALY could enhance the usefulness of cost-effectiveness analysis as a field. Scant information exists on willingness to pay (WTP) for a QALY based on direct elicitation of preferences from community members or patients. We had the opportunity to evaluate WTP per QALY using data from a survey on temporary health outcomes related to herpes zoster. Our aims were to (i) describe how much community members are willing to pay to save a QALY based on scenarios describing temporary health states; (ii) evaluate how WTP per QALY varies based on experience with the disease being described and with demographic variables; and (iii) evaluate how the duration and intensity of pain in a scenario influences WTP per QALY.
  
  
  METHODS
  Community members drawn from a nationally representative survey research panel (n = 478) completed an Internet-based survey using time trade-off (TTO) and WTP questions to value a series of scenarios that described herpes zoster cases of varying pain intensity (on a scale of 0-10) and duration (30 days to 1 year). Patients with shingles (n = 354) or postherpetic neuralgia (PHN; n = 120) [defined as having symptoms for 90 days or more] from two large healthcare systems completed telephone interviews with similar questions. Mean and median WTP per QALY values were calculated by dividing the WTP amount by the discounted time traded for each scenario. Responses with a WTP value of more than zero and a TTO value of zero (which would have resulted in an undefined value) were excluded. TTO values were discounted by 3% per year. WTP per QALY means were calculated after trimming the top and bottom 2.5% of responses. Multivariate analyses were conducted using generalized linear mixed models that assumed a negative binomial distribution.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Among all respondents, the WTP per QALY ranged from a median of $US7000 to $US11,000 and a trimmed mean of $US26 000 to $US45,000 (year 2005 values), depending on the scenario described. WTP per QALY values varied significantly with respondent characteristics, as well as among respondents with similar characteristics. In multivariate analyses, the mean WTP per QALY was higher among respondents who were younger, male or had higher educational or income levels. After adjusting for these demographic variables, patients who had experienced shingles gave responses with the highest WTP per QALY values. Patients who had experienced PHN gave the lowest values, and community members gave values intermediate to the shingles and PHN groups. In multivariate models that evaluated the effects of pain and duration of the hypothetical zoster scenario, lower duration was associated with higher WTP per QALY. This effect appeared to be due to people increasing the amounts of time they would be willing to trade as duration increased, without proportional increases in the amounts of money they would be willing to pay.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Community members and patients gave mean WTP per QALY values that varied significantly based on age, sex, socioeconomic status, experience with shingles and duration of the health state evaluated. The variability in WTP per QALY suggests that it may be difficult to define a unitary threshold of dollars per QALY for policy making based on cost-effectiveness analyses.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ambulatory Care and Prevention, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA. tracy_lieu@harvardpilgrim.org
authors.forename: Tracy A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Lieu
authors.forename: G Thomas
authors.initials: GT
authors.lastname: Ray
authors.forename: Ismael R
authors.initials: IR
authors.lastname: Ortega-Sanchez
authors.forename: Ken
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kleinman
authors.forename: Donna
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Rusinak
authors.forename: Lisa A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Prosser
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D003159:Community-Institutional Relations / Q000191:economics; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D005382:Financing, Personal / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D019538:Health Care Surveys; D006304:Health Status; D006562:Herpes Zoster / Q000150:complications / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D053061:Herpes Zoster Vaccine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000191:economics*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D051474:Neuralgia, Postherpetic / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D057240:Patient Preference / Q000191:economics* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D019057:Quality-Adjusted Life Years; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D053061:Herpes Zoster Vaccine