title: Assessment of three dead detector correction methods for cone-beam computed tomography.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Dead detectors due to manufacturing defects or radiation damage in the electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) used for cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) can lead to image degradation and ring artifacts. In this work three dead detector correction methods were assessed using megavoltage CBCT (MVCBCT) as a test system, with the goals of assessing the relative effectiveness of the three methods and establishing the conditions for which they fail.
  
  
  METHODS
  MVCBCT projections acquired with four linacs at 8 and 60 MU (monitor units) were degraded with varying percentages (2%-95%) of randomly distributed dead single detectors (RDSs), randomly distributed dead detector clusters (RDCs) of 2 mm diameter, and nonrandomly distributed dead detector disks (NRDDs) of varying diameter (4-16 mm). Correction algorithms were bidirectional linear interpolation (BLI), quad-directional linear interpolation (QLI), and a Laplacian solution (LS) method. Correction method failure was defined to occur if ring artifacts were present in the reconstructed phantom images from any linac or if the modulation transfer function (MTF) for any linac dropped below baseline with a p value, calculated with the two sample t test, of less than 0.01.
  
  
  RESULTS
  All correction methods failed at the same or lower RDC/RDS percentages and NRDD diameters for the 60 MU as for the 8 MU cases. The LS method tended to outperform or match the BLI and QLI methods. If ring artifacts anywhere in the images were considered unacceptable, the LS method failed for 60 MU at >33% RDS, >2% RDC, and >4 mm NRDD. If ring artifacts within 4 mm longitudinally of the phantom section interfaces were considered acceptable, the LS method failed for 60 MU at >90% RDS, >80% RDC, and >4 mm NRDD. LS failed due to MTF drop for 60 MU at >50% RDS, >25% RDC, and >4 mm NRDD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The LS method is superior to the BLI and QLI methods, and correction algorithm effectiveness decreases as imaging dose increases. All correction methods failed first due to ring artifacts and second due to MTF drop. If ring artifacts in axial slices within a 4 mm longitudinal distance from phantom section interfaces are acceptable, statistically significant loss in spatial resolution does not occur until over 25% of the EPID is covered in randomly distributed dead detectors, or NRDDs of 4 mm diameter are present.
authors.affiliation: University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, Iowa 52245, USA. david-nelms@uiowa.edu
authors.forename: David W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Nelms
authors.forename: Hemant I
authors.initials: HI
authors.lastname: Shukla
authors.forename: Earl
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Nixon
authors.forename: John E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Bayouth
authors.forename: Ryan T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Flynn
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D054893:Cone-Beam Computed Tomography / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods*; D004867:Equipment Design; D004868:Equipment Failure; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis; D006801:Humans; D011856:Radiographic Image Enhancement / Q000379:methods*; D011857:Radiographic Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D011873:Radiology Information Systems; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D014159:Transducers