title: Shame as a traumatic memory.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  This study explores the premise that shame episodes can have the properties of traumatic memories, involving intrusions, flashbacks, strong emotional avoidance, hyper arousal, fragmented states of mind and dissociation.
  
  
  METHODS
  A battery of self-report questionnaires was used to assess shame, shame traumatic memory and depression in 811 participants from general population (481 undergraduate students and 330 subjects from normal population).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results show that early shame experiences do indeed reveal traumatic memory characteristics. Moreover, these experiences are associated with current feelings of internal and external shame in adulthood. We also found that current shame and depression are significantly related. Key to our findings is that those individuals whose shame memories display more traumatic characteristics show more depressive symptoms. A moderator analysis suggested an effect of shame traumatic memory on the relationship between shame and depression.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The transversal nature of our study design, the use of self-reports questionnaires, the possibility of selective memories in participants' retrospective reports and the use of a general community sample, are some methodological limitations that should be considered in our investigation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our study presents novel perspectives on the nature of shame and its relation to psychopathology, empirically supporting the proposal that shame memories have traumatic memory characteristics, that not only affect shame in adulthood but also seem to moderate the impact of shame on depression. Therefore, these considerations emphasize the importance of assessing and intervening on shame memories in a therapeutic context.
authors.affiliation: Cognitive-Behavioral Research Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal. marcela.s.matos@gmail.com
authors.forename: Marcela
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Matos
authors.forename: José
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Pinto-Gouveia
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015897:Comorbidity; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D008016:Life Change Events; D008297:Male; D011939:Mental Recall; D010555:Personality Inventory / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011174:Portugal; D011594:Psychometrics; D012649:Self Concept; D012752:Shame; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology; D055815:Young Adult