title: A test of shame in outpatients with emotional disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Shame is an acknowledged part of several psychopathological conditions, but is underrepresented in clinical research. Cook's Internalized Shame Scale (ISS) is the most promising measure, but has mostly been used for testing small clinical samples biased toward depressive pathology and female participants.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To contribute to establishing indicators of pathological shame in outpatients with depression and anxiety disorder, and to contribute to establishing norms for the ISS in Scandinavia.
  
  
  METHODS
  The ISS was administered to n = 200 gender balanced non-patient and outpatient samples. A total of 100 patients each were diagnosed as suffering from a depression or anxiety disorder. The diagnoses were supported by Beck's Depression (BDI) and Anxiety Inventory (BAI). The analyses used were the principal component analysis (PCA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for item structure and sample equivalence, ANOVAs, t-tests and Mann-Whitney non-parametric statistics for index scores, and the receiver operating curve (ROC) for break-off.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Patients' ISS score were similar to the results from previous research, the effect size of patient-non-patient difference was 0.68, correlations indicated a higher level of shame in depression than in anxiety, and the BDI-BAI correlation was 0.56 for both clinical samples. The PCA showed three factors that were identified as: "Inadequacy", "Emptiness", and "Vulnerability".
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The ISS is a viable instrument, which indicates a widespread shame pathology in both depressive and anxious out-patients. The instrument may not be uni-dimensional, but exploration of factor variation may be a promising goal for further research.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Assessment of shame should be included in diagnosis and treatment of emotional disorder.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway. arne.vikan@svt.ntnu.no
authors.forename: Arne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vikan
authors.forename: Anne Marit
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Hassel
authors.forename: Arild
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rugset
authors.forename: Hedda Eline
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Johansen
authors.forename: Tomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Moen
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000553:Ambulatory Care; D001008:Anxiety Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D003431:Cross-Cultural Comparison; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009664:Norway; D010555:Personality Inventory / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011594:Psychometrics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012016:Reference Values; D012649:Self Concept; D012737:Sex Factors; D012752:Shame; D014175:Translating; D055815:Young Adult