title: The "how" and "whys" of research: life scientists' views of accountability.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To investigate life scientists' views of accountability and the ethical and societal implications of research.
  
  
  METHODS
  Qualitative focus group and one-on-one interviews.
  
  
  METHODS
  45 Stanford University life scientists, including graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and faculty.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two main themes were identified in participants' discussions of accountability: (1) the "how" of science and (2) the "why" of science. The "how" encompassed the internal conduct of research including attributes such as honesty and independence. The "why," or the motivation for conducting research, was two-tiered: first was the desire to positively impact the research community and science itself, and second was an interest in positively impacting the external community, broadly referred to as society. Participants noted that these motivations were influenced by the current systems of publications, grants and funding, thereby supporting a complex notion of boundary-setting between science and non-science. In addition, while all participants recognised the "how" of science and the two tiers of "why," scientists expressed the need to prioritise these domains of accountability. This prioritisation was related to a researcher's position in the academic career trajectory and to the researcher's subsequent "perceived proximity" to scientific or societal concerns. Our findings therefore suggest the need for institutional change to inculcate early-stage researchers with a broader awareness of the implications of their research. The peer review processes for funding and publication could be effective avenues for encouraging scientists to broaden their views of accountability to society.
authors: Center for Integration of Research on Genetics and Ethics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
authors: J M
authors: JM
authors: Ladd
authors: M D
authors: MD
authors: Lappé
authors: J B
authors: JB
authors: McCormick
authors: A M
authors: AM
authors: Boyce
authors: M K
authors: MK
authors: Cho
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000941:ethics*; D004995:Ethics, Professional; D005260:Female; D017144:Focus Groups; D006801:Humans; D007400:Interprofessional Relations / Q000941:ethics*; D008297:Male; D017712:Peer Review, Research / Q000941:ethics*; D012108:Research Personnel / Q000941:ethics* / Q000523:psychology; D012941:Social Responsibility; D014495:Universities