Birth cohort increases in psychopathology among young Americans, 1938-2007: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of the MMPI.
Two cross-temporal meta-analyses find large generational increases in psychopathology among American college students (N=63,706) between 1938 and 2007 on the MMPI and MMPI-2 and high school students (N=13,870) between 1951 and 2002 on the MMPI-A. The current generation of young people scores about a standard deviation higher (average d=1.05) on the clinical scales, including Pd (Psychopathic Deviation), Pa (Paranoia), Ma (Hypomania), and D (Depression). Five times as many now score above common cutoffs for psychopathology, including up to 40% on Ma. The birth cohort effects are still large and significant after controlling for the L and K validity scales, suggesting that the changes are not caused by response bias. The results best fit a model citing cultural shifts toward extrinsic goals, such as materialism and status and away from intrinsic goals, such as community, meaning in life, and affiliation.
Twenge
Jean M
JM
San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182-4611, USA. jtwenge@mail.sdsu.edu
Gentile
Brittany
B
DeWall
C Nathan
CN
Ma
Debbie
D
Lacefield
Katharine
K
Schurtz
David R
DR
D015988:Cohort Effect; D003431:Cross-Cultural Comparison; D006040:Goals; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D008950:MMPI / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D012931:Social Environment; D013334:Students; D013997:Time Factors