title: Toward reconstructing the evolution of advanced moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera: Ditrysia): an initial molecular study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In the mega-diverse insect order Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths; 165,000 described species), deeper relationships are little understood within the clade Ditrysia, to which 98% of the species belong. To begin addressing this problem, we tested the ability of five protein-coding nuclear genes (6.7 kb total), and character subsets therein, to resolve relationships among 123 species representing 27 (of 33) superfamilies and 55 (of 100) families of Ditrysia under maximum likelihood analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Our trees show broad concordance with previous morphological hypotheses of ditrysian phylogeny, although most relationships among superfamilies are weakly supported. There are also notable surprises, such as a consistently closer relationship of Pyraloidea than of butterflies to most Macrolepidoptera. Monophyly is significantly rejected by one or more character sets for the putative clades Macrolepidoptera as currently defined (P < 0.05) and Macrolepidoptera excluding Noctuoidea and Bombycoidea sensu lato (P < or = 0.005), and nearly so for the superfamily Drepanoidea as currently defined (P < 0.08). Superfamilies are typically recovered or nearly so, but usually without strong support. Relationships within superfamilies and families, however, are often robustly resolved. We provide some of the first strong molecular evidence on deeper splits within Pyraloidea, Tortricoidea, Geometroidea, Noctuoidea and others.Separate analyses of mostly synonymous versus non-synonymous character sets revealed notable differences (though not strong conflict), including a marked influence of compositional heterogeneity on apparent signal in the third codon position (nt3). As available model partitioning methods cannot correct for this variation, we assessed overall phylogeny resolution through separate examination of trees from each character set. Exploration of "tree space" with GARLI, using grid computing, showed that hundreds of searches are typically needed to find the best-feasible phylogeny estimate for these data.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results (a) corroborate the broad outlines of the current working phylogenetic hypothesis for Ditrysia, (b) demonstrate that some prominent features of that hypothesis, including the position of the butterflies, need revision, and (c) resolve the majority of family and subfamily relationships within superfamilies as thus far sampled. Much further gene and taxon sampling will be needed, however, to strongly resolve individual deeper nodes.
authors: Center for Biosystems Research, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, College Park, 20742, USA. regier@umbi.umd.edu
authors: Jerome C
authors: JC
authors: Regier
authors: Andreas
authors: A
authors: Zwick
authors: Michael P
authors: MP
authors: Cummings
authors: Akito Y
authors: AY
authors: Kawahara
authors: Soowon
authors: S
authors: Cho
authors: Susan
authors: S
authors: Weller
authors: Amanda
authors: A
authors: Roe
authors: Joaquin
authors: J
authors: Baixeras
authors: John W
authors: JW
authors: Brown
authors: Cynthia
authors: C
authors: Parr
authors: Donald R
authors: DR
authors: Davis
authors: Marc
authors: M
authors: Epstein
authors: Winifred
authors: W
authors: Hallwachs
authors: Axel
authors: A
authors: Hausmann
authors: Daniel H
authors: DH
authors: Janzen
authors: Ian J
authors: IJ
authors: Kitching
authors: M Alma
authors: MA
authors: Solis
authors: Shen-Horn
authors: SH
authors: Yen
authors: Adam L
authors: AL
authors: Bazinet
authors: Charles
authors: C
authors: Mitter
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001499:Bayes Theorem; D005075:Biological Evolution; D007915:Lepidoptera / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics*; D010802:Phylogeny; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA