title: The mixability of angiographic contrast with arterial blood.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Angiographic contrast that is routinely injected into arteries is used not only to evaluate arterial geometry but also in many cases to assess perfusion. The authors conducted two experiments to examine the dispersion of angiographic contrast injected antegradely into an artery under conditions similar to those found in selective (carotid artery) or superselective (circle of Willis) angiography in order to determine the distance from the catheter tip at which the contrast can be considered fully mixed with the blood. A third experiment investigated whether the contrast once mixed with blood will separate from the mixture under the gravitational field due to a density mismatch.
  
  
  METHODS
  Experiment I--Under high-speed angiographic acquisition, a bolus of contrast was injected through a catheter along the flow direction of a blood analog fluid flowing through a straight, long, cylindrical tube. The variation in grayscale intensity along the length of the tube was acquired and modeled as the step response to a second-order system. The distance from the catheter tip at which the contrast mixes with the working fluid, the mixing length, was determined as the length along the tube after which the step response settles to within 3% of the steady state value. Experiment II--A bolus of angiographic contrast was injected at rates varying from 0.1 to 1 cc/s through three different catheter sizes in the left common carotid artery of three rabbits. The average cross-sectional grayscale intensity over one cardiac cycle was calculated at four locations along the artery: Immediately distal to the catheter tip, at location of maximum grayscale intensity, and at 10 and 20 arterial diameters from the catheter tip. The status of mixing within 10 arterial diameters was assessed by differences between the grayscale value at this location and that at the maximum and 20 arterial diameter location. Experiment III--Angiographic contrast was premixed by agitation in three separate vials containing normal saline, canine blood, and glycerol/distilled-water mixture. The vials were then stationed vertically and angiographic images obtained every 5 min for 1 h. The average intensity of contrast along the vertical length of each vial was obtained for every time point to record any changes in the distribution of contrast over time.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The first experiment shows that angiographic contrast completely mixes with steady flowing blood analog fluid within about eight tube diameters of the injection site. The second experiment shows that contrast completely mixes with blood within ten arterial diameters under appropriate injection parameters. The third experiment shows that angiographic contrast does not separate from, or settle out of, contrast-carrying fluid mixtures for a period of 1 h.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results demonstrate that under typical injection conditions in the clinical setting, contrast issuing from the catheter completely mixes with the blood within ten artery diameters downstream of the catheter tip. Once mixed, it does not separate from the blood due to gravity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33146, USA. blieber@miami.edu
authors.forename: Baruch B
authors.initials: BB
authors.lastname: Lieber
authors.forename: Chander
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Sadasivan
authors.forename: Qing
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Hao
authors.forename: Jaehoon
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Seong
authors.forename: Liliana
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Cesar
mesh_terms: D000792:Angiography / Q000379:methods*; D000818:Animals; D001158:Arteries / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D001769:Blood / Q000378:metabolism*; D002404:Catheterization / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D002941:Circle of Willis / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D003287:Contrast Media / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D004285:Dogs; D005990:Glycerol / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D006112:Gravitation; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D008297:Male; D008954:Models, Biological; D011817:Rabbits
chemical_list: D003287:Contrast Media; D005990:Glycerol