title: Cytotype diversity and genome size variation in eastern Asian polyploid Cardamine (Brassicaceae) species.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Intraspecific ploidy-level variation is an important aspect of a species' genetic make-up, which may lend insight into its evolutionary history and future potential. The present study explores this phenomenon in a group of eastern Asian Cardamine species.
  
  
  METHODS
  Plant material was sampled from 59 localities in Japan and Korea, which were used in karyological (chromosome counting) and flow cytometric analyses. The absolute nuclear DNA content (in pg) was measured using propidium iodide and the relative nuclear DNA content (in arbitrary units) was measured using 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole fluorochrome.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Substantial cytotype diversity was found, with strikingly different distribution patterns between the species. Two cytotypes were found in C. torrentis sensu lato (4x and 8x, in C. valida and C. torrentis sensu stricto, respectively), which displays a north-south geographical pattern in Japan. Hypotheses regarding their origin and colonization history in the Japanese archipelago are discussed. In Korean C. amaraeiformis, only tetraploids were found, and these populations may in fact belong to C. valida. C. yezoensis was found to harbour as many as six cytotypes in Japan, ranging from hexa- to dodecaploids. Ploidy levels do not show any obvious geographical pattern; populations with mixed ploidy levels, containing two to four cytotypes, are frequently observed throughout the range. C. schinziana, an endemic of Hokkaido, has hexa- and octoploid populations. Previous chromosome records are also revised, showing that they are largely based on misidentified material or misinterpreted names.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Sampling of multiple populations and utilization of the efficient flow cytometric approach allowed the detection of large-scale variation in ploidy levels and genome size variation attributable to aneuploidy. These data will be essential in further phylogenetic and evolutionary studies.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Botany, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-845 23 Bratislava, Slovak Republic. karol.marhold@savba.sk
authors.forename: Karol
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Marhold
authors.forename: Hiroshi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kudoh
authors.forename: Jae-Hong
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Pak
authors.forename: Kuniaki
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Watanabe
authors.forename: Stanislav
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Spaniel
authors.forename: Judita
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lihová
mesh_terms: D031217:Cardamine / Q000145:classification / Q000166:cytology* / Q000235:genetics*; D032461:Chromosomes, Plant / Q000235:genetics; D005434:Flow Cytometry; D018745:Genome, Plant / Q000235:genetics*; D007564:Japan; D007723:Korea; D011123:Polyploidy