title: Intake of selected nutrients from foods, from fortification and from supplements in various European countries.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent European Union regulation requires setting of maximum amount of micronutrients in dietary supplements or foods taking into account the tolerable upper intake level (ULs) established by scientific risk assessment and population reference intakes.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To collect and evaluate recently available data on intakes of selected vitamins and minerals from conventional foods, food supplements and fortified foods in adults and children. Intake of calcium, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, zinc, folic acid, niacin and total vitamin A/retinol, B(6), D and E was derived from nationally representative surveys in Denmark, Germany, Finland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom. Intake of high consumers, defined as the 95th percentile of each nutrient, was compared to the UL.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For most nutrients, adults and children generally consume considerably less than the UL with exceptions being retinol, zinc, iodine, copper and magnesium. The major contributor to intakes for all nutrients and in all countries is from foods in the base diet. The patterns of food supplements and voluntary fortification vary widely among countries with food supplements being responsible for the largest differences in total intakes. In the present study, for those countries with data on fortified foods, fortified foods do not significantly contribute to higher intakes for any nutrient. Total nutrient intake expressed as percentage of the UL is generally higher in children than in adults.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The risk of excessive intakes is relatively low for the majority of nutrients with a few exceptions. Children are the most vulnerable group as they are more likely to exhibit high intakes relative to the UL. There is a need to develop improved methods for estimating intakes of micronutrients from fortified foods and food supplements in future dietary surveys.
authors.affiliation: Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College of Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Albert
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Flynn
authors.forename: Tero
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Hirvonen
authors.forename: Gert B M
authors.initials: GB
authors.lastname: Mensink
authors.forename: Marga C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Ocké
authors.forename: Lluis
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Serra-Majem
authors.forename: Katarzyna
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Stos
authors.forename: Lucjan
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Szponar
authors.forename: Inge
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Tetens
authors.forename: Aida
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Turrini
authors.forename: Reg
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Fletcher
authors.forename: Tanja
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Wildemann