title: Does cognitive training improve internal locus of control among older adults?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We evaluated the effect of cognitive training among 1,534 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomized controlled trial (RCT) on 5-year improvements in 3 cognitive-specific measures of locus of control-internal, chance, and powerful others.
  
  
  METHODS
  ACTIVE was a multisite RCT (age > or = 65), with 4 groups (memory, reasoning, speed of processing, and no-contact control). Complete 5-year follow-up data were available for 1,534 (55%) of the 2,802 participants. A propensity score model was used to adjust for potential attrition bias. Clinically important improvements (and decrements) in the cognitive-specific locus of control scale scores were defined as greater than or equal to 0.5 SD (medium) and greater than or equal to 1.0 SD (large). Multinomial logistic regression was used to simultaneously contrast those who improved and those who declined with those whose locus of control scale score was unchanged.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Statistically significant effects reflecting medium-sized (> or = 0.5 SD) improvements in internal locus of control between baseline and the 5-year follow-up were found for the reasoning and speed of processing intervention groups who were 76% (p < .01) and 68% (p < .05) more likely, respectively, to improve than the no-contact control group. No improvement effects were found on the chance or powerful others locus of control measures or for the memory intervention group.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cognitive training that targets reasoning and speed of processing can improve the cognitive-specific sense of personal control over one's life in older adults.
authors.affiliation: Center for Research on the Implementation of Innovative Strategies into Practice, Iowa City, Iowa, USA. fredric-wolinsky@uiowa.edu
authors.forename: Fredric D
authors.initials: FD
authors.lastname: Wolinsky
authors.forename: Mark W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Vander Weg
authors.forename: René
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Martin
authors.forename: Frederick W
authors.initials: FW
authors.lastname: Unverzagt
authors.forename: Sherry L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Willis
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Marsiske
authors.forename: George W
authors.initials: GW
authors.lastname: Rebok
authors.forename: John N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Morris
authors.forename: Karlene K
authors.initials: KK
authors.lastname: Ball
authors.forename: Sharon L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Tennstedt
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged / Q000523:psychology*; D003071:Cognition; D004493:Education; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory; D016017:Odds Ratio; D013850:Thinking