title: Malaria control insecticide residues in breast milk: the need to consider infant health risks.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In many parts of the world, deliberate indoor residual spraying (IRS) of dwellings with insecticides to control malaria transmission remains the only viable option, thereby unintentionally but inevitably also causing exposure to inhabitants. Because mothers are exposed to insecticides via various routes, accumulated residues are transferred to infants via breast milk, in some cases exceeding recommended intake levels. Except for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), safety of residues of other insecticides in breast milk has not been considered during World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) evaluations. However, very little is known of the health risks posed by these chemicals to infants who, in developing countries, breast-feed for up to 2 years.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We evaluated the need for WHOPES to include breast milk as a potentially significant route of exposure and risk to infants when evaluating the risks during evaluation of IRS insecticides.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We present evidence showing that neurologic and endocrine effects are associated with pyrethroids and DDT at levels equal or below known levels in breast milk.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Because millions of people in malaria control areas experience conditions of multiple sources and routes of exposure to any number of insecticides, even though lives are saved through malaria prevention, identification of potential infant health risks associated with insecticide residues in breast milk must be incorporated in WHOPES evaluations and in the development of appropriate risk assessment tools.
authors.affiliation: School of Environmental Sciences and Development (Zoology), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. henk.bouwman@nwu.ac.za
authors.forename: Hindrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Bouwman
authors.forename: Henrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kylin
mesh_terms: D001942:Breast Feeding; D003634:DDT / Q000032:analysis; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007300:Insect Control; D007306:Insecticides / Q000032:analysis*; D008288:Malaria / Q000517:prevention & control*; D008895:Milk, Human / Q000737:chemistry*; D011722:Pyrethrins / Q000032:analysis; D014944:World Health Organization
chemical_list: D007306:Insecticides; D011722:Pyrethrins; D003634:DDT