Environmental inequalities among children in Europe--evaluation of scientific evidence and policy implications.
BACKGROUND
Socio-economic inequalities in the living environment are major contributing factors to health inequalities. Consequently, protecting children from undesirable environmental exposures by taking socio-economic conditions into account has been identified as a policy priority area in Europe. This review aims to evaluate the evidence on environmental inequalities among children in Europe and to discuss its policy implications.


METHODS
A systematic literature search was conducted in various literature databases. Further sources for information were reviews, international reports and working documents for a WHO expert meeting on environmental inequalities in 2009. One major inclusion criterion for publications was consideration of socio-economic factors as influencing factors, not merely as confounder.


RESULTS
The overall pattern based on the available fragmentary data is that children living in adverse social circumstances suffer from multiple and cumulative exposures. A low socio-economic position is associated with an increased exposure of children to traffic-related air pollution, noise, lead, environmental tobacco smoke, inadequate housing and residential conditions and less opportunities for physical activity. For most topics and exposures reviewed here there were no studies investigating the modification of the exposure-response function by socio-economic factors. Due to a variety of methodological approaches and studies on one hand and lack of data for many topics and countries on the other hand it was not possible to quantify the magnitude of environmental inequalities.


CONCLUSIONS
Action is needed along the whole causal pathway of the social divide in environmental hazards with priority to policy measures aiming at removing socially determined differences in environmental conditions.
Bolte
Gabriele
G
Department of Environmental Health, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany. gabriele.bolte@lgl.bayern.de
Tamburlini
Giorgio
G
Kohlhuber
Martina
M
D002648:Child; D004782:Environmental Health; D005060:Europe; D054625:Healthcare Disparities; D006801:Humans; D011640:Public Policy; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors