title: Cadmium malignantly transforms normal human breast epithelial cells into a basal-like phenotype.
abstract: Breast cancer has recently been linked to cadmium exposure. Although not uniformly supported, it is hypothesized that cadmium acts as a metalloestrogenic carcinogen via the estrogen receptor (ER). Thus, we studied the effects of chronic exposure to cadmium on the normal human breast epithelial cell line MCF-10A, which is ER-negative but can convert to ER-positive during malignant transformation.
  
  
  
  Cells were continuously exposed to low-level cadmium (2.5 μM) and checked in vitro and by xenograft study for signs of malignant transformation. Transformant cells were molecularly characterized by protein and transcript analysis of key genes in breast cancer.
  
  
  
  Over 40 weeks of cadmium exposure, cells showed increasing secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-9, loss of contact inhibition, increased colony formation, and increasing invasion, all typical for cancer cells. Inoculation of cadmium-treated cells into mice produced invasive, metastatic anaplastic carcinoma with myoepithelial components. These cadmium-transformed breast epithelial (CTBE) cells displayed characteristics of basal-like breast carcinoma, including ER-alpha negativity and HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) negativity, reduced expression of BRCA1 (breast cancer susceptibility gene 1), and increased CK5 (cytokeratin 5) and p63 expression. CK5 and p63, both breast stem cell markers, were prominently overexpressed in CTBE cell mounds, indicative of persistent proliferation. CTBE cells showed global DNA hypomethylation and c-myc and k-ras overexpression, typical in aggressive breast cancers. CTBE cell xenograft tumors were also ER-alpha negative.
  
  
  
  Cadmium malignantly transforms normal human breast epithelial cells-through a mechanism not requiring ER-alpha-into a basal-like cancer phenotype. Direct cadmium induction of a malignant phenotype in human breast epithelial cells strongly fortifies a potential role in breast cancer.
authors.affiliation: Inorganic Carcinogenesis Section, Laboratory of Comparative Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute (NCI) at National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
authors.forename: Lamia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Benbrahim-Tallaa
authors.forename: Erik J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Tokar
authors.forename: Bhalchandra A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Diwan
authors.forename: Anna L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Dill
authors.forename: Jean-François
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Coppin
authors.forename: Michael P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Waalkes
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001141:Aromatase / Q000378:metabolism; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced*; D002104:Cadmium / Q000633:toxicity*; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D002471:Cell Transformation, Neoplastic; D047628:Estrogen Receptor alpha / Q000032:analysis; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D053555:Keratin-5 / Q000032:analysis; D008565:Membrane Proteins / Q000032:analysis; D051379:Mice; D010641:Phenotype
chemical_list: C081876:CKAP4 protein, human; D047628:Estrogen Receptor alpha; D053555:Keratin-5; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D002104:Cadmium; D001141:Aromatase