title: Seasonal influenza risk in hospital healthcare workers is more strongly associated with household than occupational exposures: results from a prospective cohort study in Berlin, Germany, 2006/07.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Influenza immunisation for healthcare workers is encouraged to protect their often vulnerable patients but also due to a perceived higher risk for influenza. We aimed to compare the risk of influenza infection in healthcare workers in acute hospital care with that in non-healthcare workers over the same season.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a prospective, multicentre cohort study during the 2006/07 influenza season in Berlin, Germany. Recruited participants gave serum samples before and after the season, and completed questionnaires to determine their relevant exposures and possible confounding factors. The main outcome measure was serologically confirmed influenza infection (SCII), defined as a fourfold or greater rise in haemagglutination inhibition antibody titres to a circulating strain of influenza (with post-season titre at least 1:40).Weekly mobile phone text messages were used to prompt participants to report respiratory illnesses during the influenza season. A logistic regression model was used to assess the influence of potential risk factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We recruited 250 hospital healthcare workers (mean age 35.7 years) and 486 non-healthcare workers (mean age 39.2 years) from administrative centres, blood donors and colleges.Overall SCII attack rate was 10.6%. Being a healthcare worker was not a risk factor for SCII (relative risk 1.1, p = 0.70). The final multivariate model had three significant factors: living with children (odds ratio [OR] 3.7, p = 0.005), immunization (OR 0.50, p = 0.02), and--among persons living in households without children--ownership of a car (OR 3.0, p = 0.02). Living with three or more children (OR 13.8, p < 0.01) was a greater risk than living with one or two children (OR 5.3, p = 0.02). 30% of participants with SCII reported no respiratory illness. Healthcare workers were at slightly higher risk of reporting any respiratory infection than controls (adjusted OR 1.3, p = 0.04, n = 850).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that healthcare workers in hospitals do not have a higher risk of influenza than non-healthcare workers, although their risk of any respiratory infection is slightly raised. Household contacts seem to be more important than exposure to patients. Car ownership is a surprise finding which needs further exploration. Asymptomatic infections are common, accounting for around a third of serologically confirmed infections.
authors.affiliation: Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany. Christopher.williams@norfolk.nhs.uk
authors.forename: Chris J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.forename: Brunhilde
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Schweiger
authors.forename: Genia
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Diner
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Gerlach
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Haaman
authors.forename: Gérard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Krause
authors.forename: Albert
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nienhaus
authors.forename: Udo
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Buchholz
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D000914:Antibodies, Viral / Q000097:blood; D001604:Berlin / Q000453:epidemiology; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005192:Family Health; D005260:Female; D006282:Health Personnel; D006385:Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests; D006761:Hospitals; D006801:Humans; D007251:Influenza, Human / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000635:transmission*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016273:Occupational Exposure; D011446:Prospective Studies; D018570:Risk Assessment; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000914:Antibodies, Viral