title: Cadmium increases human fetal germ cell apoptosis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cadmium (Cd) is a common environmental pollutant and a major constituent of tobacco smoke. Adverse effects of this heavy metal on reproductive function have been identified in adults; however, no studies have examined its effects on human reproductive organs during development.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Using our previously developed organ culture system, we investigated the effects of cadmium chloride on human gonads at the beginning of fetal life, a critical stage in the development of reproductive function.
  
  
  METHODS
  Human fetal gonads were recovered during the first trimester (711 weeks postconception) and cultured with or without Cd. We used different concentrations of Cd and compared results with those obtained with mouse fetal gonads at similar stages.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cd, at concentrations as low as 1 microM, significantly decreased the germ cell density in human fetal ovaries. This correlated with an increase in germ cell apoptosis, but there was no effect on proliferation. Similarly, in the human fetal testis, Cd (1 microM) reduced germ cell number without affecting testosterone secretion. In mouse fetal gonads, Cd increased only female germ cell apoptosis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first experimental demonstration that Cd, at low concentrations, alters the survival of male and female germ cells in humans. Considering data demonstrating extensive human exposure, we believe that current environmental levels of Cd could be deleterious to early gametogenesis.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Differentiation and Radiobiology of the Gonads, CEADSV/iRCM/SCSR, Fontenay aux Roses, France. gabriel.livera@cea.fr
authors.forename: Gaëlle
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Angenard
authors.forename: Vincent
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Muczynski
authors.forename: Hervé
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Coffigny
authors.forename: Catherine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pairault
authors.forename: Clotilde
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Duquenne
authors.forename: René
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Frydman
authors.forename: René
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Habert
authors.forename: Virginie
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Rouiller-Fabre
authors.forename: Gabriel
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Livera
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000633:toxicity*; D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D002104:Cadmium / Q000633:toxicity*; D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000166:cytology*; D005854:Germ Cells / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects*; D006066:Gonads / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000196:embryology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D051379:Mice; D009924:Organ Culture Techniques; D011247:Pregnancy; D011261:Pregnancy Trimester, First
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D002104:Cadmium