title: Using small-scale studies to prioritize threats and guide recovery of a rare hemiparasitic plant: Cordylanthus rigidus ssp. littoralis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recovering endangered species would benefit from identifying and ranking of the factors that threaten them. Simply managing for multiple positive influences will often aid in recovery; however, the relative impacts of multiple threats and/or interactions among them are not always predictable. We used a series of experiments and quantitative observational studies to examine the importance of five potential limiting factors to the abundance of a state-listed endangered hemiparasitic annual forb, Cordylanthus rigidus ssp. littoralis (C.r.l., California, USA): host availability, mammalian herbivores, insect seed predators, fire suppression, and exotic species. While this initial assessment is certainly not a complete list, these factors stem from direct observation and can inform provisional recommendations for management and further research.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Studies were conducted at five sites and included assessments of the influence of host availability, exotic species, exclusion of mammalian herbivores and insect seed predators on C.r.l. productivity, and simulated effects of fire on seed germination. C.r.l. was limited by multiple threats: individuals with access to host species produced up to three times more inflorescences than those lacking hosts, mammalian herbivory reduced C.r.l. size and fecundity by more than 50% and moth larvae reduced seed production by up to 40%. Litter deposition and competition from exotic plant species also appears to work in conjunction with other factors to limit C.r.l. throughout its life cycle.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The work reported here highlights the contribution that a series of small-scale studies can make to conservation and restoration. Taken as a whole, the results can be used immediately to inform current management and species recovery strategies. Recovery of C.r.l. will require management that addresses competition with exotic plant species, herbivore pressure, and availability of preferred host species.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Studies Institute, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America. SWatts@scu.edu
authors.forename: Sean M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Watts
authors.forename: Melissa M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Uhl
authors.forename: Stephen P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Maurano
authors.forename: Erin E
authors.initials: EE
authors.lastname: Nuccio
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D031670:Orobanchaceae / Q000254:growth & development*