Hierarchy as a barrier to advancement for women in academic medicine.
BACKGROUND
Research on barriers to professional advancement for women in academic medicine has not adequately considered the role of environmental factors and how the structure of organizations affects professional advancement and work experiences. This article examines the impact of the hierarchy, including both the organization's hierarchical structure and professionals' perceptions of this structure, in medical school organization on faculty members' experience and advancement in academic medicine.


METHODS
As part of an inductive qualitative study of faculty in five disparate U.S. medical schools, we interviewed 96 medical faculty at different career stages and in diverse specialties, using in-depth semistructured interviews, about their perceptions about and experiences in academic medicine. Data were coded and analysis was conducted in the grounded theory tradition.


RESULTS
Our respondents saw the hierarchy of chairs, based on the indeterminate tenure of department chairs, as a central characteristic of the structure of academic medicine. Many faculty saw this hierarchy as affecting inclusion, reducing transparency in decision making, and impeding advancement. Indeterminate chair terms lessen turnover and may create a bottleneck for advancement. Both men and women faculty perceived this hierarchy, but women saw it as more consequential.


CONCLUSIONS
The hierarchical structure of academic medicine has a significant impact on faculty work experiences, including advancement, especially for women. We suggest that medical schools consider alternative models of leadership and managerial styles, including fixed terms for chairs with a greater emphasis on inclusion. This is a structural reform that could increase opportunities for advancement especially for women in academic medicine.
Department of Sociology, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts 02454, USA. conrad@brandeis.edu
Peter
P
Conrad
Phyllis
P
Carr
Sharon
S
Knight
Megan R
MR
Renfrew
Mary B
MB
Dunn
Linda
L
Pololi
D000046:Academic Medical Centers; D000328:Adult; D002322:Career Mobility; D005178:Faculty / Q000458:organization & administration / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005180:Faculty, Medical; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D036301:Qualitative Research; D012577:Schools, Medical; D013663:Teaching / Q000145:classification / Q000592:standards*; D014481:United States; D014931:Women, Working / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D000078329:Workforce