title: Quantitative PCR assays to survey the bovine adenovirus levels in environmental samples.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Previous studies suggested bovine adenoviruses (BAdVs) could be used as cattle faecal indicators. The main aim of this study was to survey the levels of BAdV in environmental samples using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two qPCR assays were developed to identify and quantify BAdVs in environmental samples. BAdVs were detected in all dairy manure, and in most cases, the sample concentrations were around 10(3)-10(4) copies ml(-1). Farm tile drainage samples were also detected, but the concentrations were about 1-3 log(10) lower than the BAdV concentrations in the manure samples. The genome equivalent copy (GEC) levels of BAdV and the phage forming unit (PFU) levels of somatic phage in manure samples were comparable. Four of twenty individual cattle faeces were positive with concentrations similar to that found in the manure samples. Sequencing results confirmed the presence of BAdV in the environmental samples, and phylogenetic analysis indicated that BAdV 2 and 4 were the most prevalent serotypes in all the manure samples tested. The qPCR assays developed in this study showed higher sensitivity in detecting BAdV 1 and 2 than the previous published nested assay.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The high levels of BAdV in the environmental samples may suggest it could be used for bovine faecal indicator. The significant levels of BAdV in the drainage samples may indicate the potential of surface water pollution by the manure applied to farm fields.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first study that reports the quantitative level of BAdV in environmental samples. These results could be useful when it comes to determining whether BAdV could be utilized as a bovine faecal indicator.
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Xagoraraki
mesh_terms: D000256:Adenoviridae / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D000818:Animals; D002417:Cattle; D004783:Environmental Microbiology; D005243:Feces / Q000821:virology*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods*; D014876:Water Pollution