title: Neutrophil extracellular traps: how to generate and visualize them.
abstract: Neutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant group of leukocytes in the peripheral blood. As professional phagocytes, they engulf bacteria and kill them intracellularly when their antimicrobial granules fuse with the phagosome. We found that neutrophils have an additional way of killing microorganisms: upon activation, they release granule proteins and chromatin that together form extracellular fibers that bind pathogens. These novel structures, or Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs), degrade virulence factors and kill bacteria, fungi and parasites. The structural backbone of NETs is DNA, and they are quickly degraded in the presence of DNases. Thus, bacteria expressing DNases are more virulent. Using correlative microscopy combining TEM, SEM, immunofluorescence and live cell imaging techniques, we could show that upon stimulation, the nuclei of neutrophils lose their shape and the eu- and heterochromatin homogenize. Later, the nuclear envelope and the granule membranes disintegrate allowing the mixing of NET components. Finally, the NETs are released as the cell membrane breaks. This cell death program (NETosis) is distinct from apoptosis and necrosis and depends on the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species by NADPH oxidase. Neutrophil extracellular traps are abundant at sites of acute inflammation. NETs appear to be a form of innate immune response that bind microorganisms, prevent them from spreading, and ensure a high local concentration of antimicrobial agents to degrade virulence factors and kill pathogens thus allowing neutrophils to fulfill their antimicrobial function even beyond their life span. There is increasing evidence, however, that NETs are also involved in diseases that range from auto-immune syndromes to infertility. We describe methods to isolate Neutrophil Granulocytes from peripheral human blood and stimulate them to form NETs. Also we include protocols to visualize the NETs in light and electron microscopy.
authors.affiliation: Core Facility Microscopy, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology.
authors.forename: Volker
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Brinkmann
authors.forename: Britta
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Laube
authors.forename: Ulrike
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Abu Abed
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Goosmann
authors.forename: Arturo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Zychlinsky
mesh_terms: D003584:Cytological Techniques / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D008854:Microscopy, Electron / Q000379:methods*; D018375:Neutrophil Activation / Q000276:immunology*; D009504:Neutrophils / Q000166:cytology* / Q000276:immunology*