title: Retinal origin of phosphenes to transcranial alternating current stimulation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine possible retinal contributions to cortically induced phosphenes by transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) involving the visual cortex.
  
  
  METHODS
  Self-reported phosphene ratings and voltage-related potentials from the canthus, supra-orbital and sub-orbital regions of the right eye were measured to 2, 10 and 20 Hz tACS at 250 and 1000 microA intensities in healthy volunteers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Qualitatively similar, but more intense phosphenes were reported during frontalis-vertex tACS as compared to occiput-vertex tACS. In addition, voltage-related potentials were recorded at the canthus and orbit regions of the eye during frontalis-vertex, occiput-vertex and occiput-right shoulder tACS.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The experience of phosphenes during tACS involving the visual cortex is influenced by volume conductions effects of the scalp.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Retinal effects should be taken into account when studying the cortical modulatory effects of tACS.
authors.affiliation: Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Research Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584CS Utrecht, The Netherlands. d.schutter@uu.nl
authors.forename: Dennis J L G
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Schutter
authors.forename: Ruud
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hortensius
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D004558:Electric Stimulation / Q000379:methods; D004574:Electromagnetic Fields; D005074:Evoked Potentials, Visual / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D010719:Phosphenes / Q000502:physiology*; D010775:Photic Stimulation / Q000379:methods*; D012160:Retina / Q000502:physiology*; D014793:Visual Cortex / Q000502:physiology; D055815:Young Adult