title: Skeletal remains from Punic Carthage do not support systematic sacrifice of infants.
abstract: Two types of cemeteries occur at Punic Carthage and other Carthaginian settlements: one centrally situated housing the remains of older children through adults, and another at the periphery of the settlement (the "Tophet") yielding small urns containing the cremated skeletal remains of very young animals and humans, sometimes comingled. Although the absence of the youngest humans at the primary cemeteries is unusual and worthy of discussion, debate has focused on the significance of Tophets, especially at Carthage, as burial grounds for the young. One interpretation, based on two supposed eye-witness reports of large-scale Carthaginian infant sacrifice [Kleitarchos (3(rd) c. BCE) and Diodorus Siculus (1(st) c. BCE)], a particular translation of inscriptions on some burial monuments, and the argument that if the animals had been sacrificed so too were the humans, is that Tophets represent burial grounds reserved for sacrificial victims. An alternative hypothesis acknowledges that while the Carthaginians may have occasionally sacrificed humans, as did their contemporaries, the extreme youth of Tophet individuals suggests these cemeteries were not only for the sacrificed, but also for the very young, however they died. Here we present the first rigorous analysis of the largest sample of cremated human skeletal remains (348 burial urns, N = 540 individuals) from the Carthaginian Tophet based on tooth formation, enamel histology, cranial and postcranial metrics, and the potential effects of heat-induced bone shrinkage. Most of the sample fell within the period prenatal to 5-to-6 postnatal months, with a significant presence of prenates. Rather than indicating sacrifice as the agent of death, this age distribution is consistent with modern-day data on perinatal mortality, which at Carthage would also have been exacerbated by numerous diseases common in other major cities, such as Rome and Pompeii. Our diverse approaches to analyzing the cremated human remains from Carthage strongly support the conclusion that Tophets were cemeteries for those who died shortly before or after birth, regardless of the cause.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America. jhs@pitt.edu
authors.forename: Jeffrey H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Schwartz
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Houghton
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Macchiarelli
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Bondioli
mesh_terms: D000365:Age Determination by Skeleton; D000366:Age Determination by Teeth; D017677:Age Distribution; D000818:Animals; D001106:Archaeology; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D002423:Cause of Death; D055699:Cemeteries / Q000266:history*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D005580:Fossils; D049690:History, Ancient; D006801:Humans; D007085:Ilium / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D014070:Tooth / Q000033:anatomy & histology