title: Needle-based blocks for the 21st century ophthalmology.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This paper reviews history of the needle orbital blocks used in the earlier centuries and how they have evolved towards safer anaesthesia in the modern clinical practice.
  
  
  METHODS
  Material is derived from literature searches from major ophthalmic and anaesthetic journals on the use of orbital needle blocks over earlier centuries.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Needle-based anaesthetic techniques were described shortly after the invention of reliable medical needles. Atkinson popularized the classical retrobulbar block in a series of papers published in the early 20th century. This technique,which utilises a relatively long needle inserted towards the apex of the muscle cone behind the globe, has been criticized by some as unsuitable for modern 21st century ophthalmic surgery because of the extremely rare potential for serious complications. Satisfactory anaesthesia and akinesia can be obtained with short sharp or dull needles with slightly higher volumes of local anaesthetic agent placed in the farthest inferotemporal quadrant.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Aside from relative safety, modern needle blocks offer the advantage of lid akinesia without a need for a second injection for the seventh nerve that is often performed con-comitantly with retrobulbar block.
authors.affiliation: The James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, UK. chandra.kumar@stees.nhs.uk
authors.forename: Chandra M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Kumar
mesh_terms: D001340:Autonomic Nerve Block / Q000266:history* / Q000379:methods; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D006801:Humans; D009466:Neuromuscular Blocking Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000266:history; D009885:Ophthalmology / Q000266:history*; D009915:Orbit
chemical_list: D009466:Neuromuscular Blocking Agents