title: Additive manufacturing models of fetuses built from three-dimensional ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography scan data.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To generate physical fetal models using images obtained by three-dimensional ultrasonography (3DUS), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) to guide additive manufacturing technology.
  
  
  METHODS
  Images from 33 fetuses, including three sets of twins, were used. Fifteen fetuses were normal and evaluated only by 3DUS. Eighteen cases had abnormalities such as conjoined twins, tumors, aneuploidy, skeletal abnormalities, central nervous system abnormalities and facial or thoracic defects. Scans were performed using high-resolution 3DUS. In cases of abnormalities, MRI and CT were performed on the same day as 3DUS. The images obtained with 3DUS, CT or MRI were exported to a workstation in DICOM format. A single observer performed slice-by-slice manual segmentation using a digital high-definition screen. Software that converts medical images into numerical models was used to construct virtual 3D models, which were physically realized using additive manufacturing technologies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Physical models based on 3DUS, MRI and CT images either separately or combined were successfully generated. They were remarkably similar to the postnatal appearance of the aborted fetus or newborn baby, especially in cases with pathology.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The use of 3DUS, MRI and CT may improve our understanding of fetal anatomical characteristics, and these technologies can be used for educational purposes and as a method for parents to visualize their unborn baby. The images can be segmented and applied separately or combined to construct 3D virtual and physical models.
authors.affiliation: Radiologia, Clínica de Diagnóstico por Imagem (CDPI), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. heron.werner@gmail.com
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Werner
authors.forename: J R L
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: dos Santos
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Fontes
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Daltro
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gasparetto
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Marchiori
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Campbell
mesh_terms: D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods; D008953:Models, Anatomic; D011247:Pregnancy; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000379:methods