title: Longitudinal course of adolescent depression: neuroendocrine and psychosocial predictors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The study examined whether cortisol measures are associated with the clinical course of depression in adolescents. Furthermore, the study evaluated whether the relationship between cortisol and clinical course is moderated by environmental stress and/or social support.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fifty-five adolescents with depression (age range 13-18 years) were recruited. In addition to a systematic diagnostic assessment, information was obtained on environmental stress and social support. Urinary free cortisol measures were collected on three consecutive nights during the index episode. Clinical follow-up evaluations were conducted at regular intervals over a 5-year period, documenting recovery from the index depressive episode and recurrent episodes. Information on environmental stress and social support also was gathered during each follow-up assessment.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Consistent with prior reports, the majority of adolescents (92.2%) recovered from the initial depressive episode. A substantial proportion of the recovered youth (42.6%) experienced a subsequent episode during the follow-up period. Higher cortisol levels were associated with a longer time to recovery from the index depressive episode. The effect of cortisol on recovery was moderated by social support. The combination of elevated cortisol and recent stressful experiences predicted recurrence, whereas a higher level of social support was protective against recurrence.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data, in conjunction with prior literature, suggest that depression reflects an underlying neurobiological vulnerability that may predispose individuals with high vulnerability to chronic, recurrent episodes. Psychosocial factors, independently or in combination with an underlying neurobiological vulnerability, also play an important role in determining the clinical course of depression.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9101, USA. uma.rao@utsouthwestern.edu
authors.forename: Uma
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Rao
authors.forename: Constance L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Hammen
authors.forename: Russell E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Poland
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001143:Arousal / Q000502:physiology; D002908:Chronic Disease; D003865:Major Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology* / Q000652:urine*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000652:urine*; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000503:physiopathology; D008016:Life Change Events; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000503:physiopathology; D012008:Recurrence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012931:Social Environment; D012944:Social Support
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone