title: Effects of optical defocus on refractive development in monkeys: evidence for local, regionally selective mechanisms.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To characterize the influence of optical defocus on ocular shape and the pattern of peripheral refraction in infant rhesus monkeys.
  
  
  METHODS
  Starting at 3 weeks of age, eight infant monkeys were reared wearing -3 diopter (D) spectacle lenses over one eye that produced relative hyperopic defocus in the nasal field (NF) but allowed unrestricted vision in the temporal field (NF group). Six infants were reared with monocular -3 D lenses that produced relative hyperopic defocus across the entire field of view. Control data were obtained from 11 normal monkeys. Refractive development was assessed by streak retinoscopy performed along the pupillary axis and at eccentricities of 15 degrees, 30 degrees, and 45 degrees along the vertical and horizontal meridians. Central axial dimensions and eye shape were assessed with magnetic resonance imaging.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In response to full-field hyperopic defocus, the eye developed relative central axial myopia, became less oblate, and exhibited relative peripheral hyperopia in both the nasal and the temporal hemifields. Conversely, nasal-field hyperopic defocus produced relative myopia that was largely restricted to the nasal hemifield; these alterations in the patterns of peripheral refraction in the NF monkeys were associated with local, region-specific alterations in vitreous chamber depth in the treated hemiretina.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Optically imposed defocus can alter the shape and pattern of peripheral refraction in infant primates. Like those of form deprivation, the effects of optical defocus in primates are dominated by mechanisms that integrate visual signals in a spatially restricted manner and exert their influence in a regionally selective manner.
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204-2020, USA. smith@uh.edu
authors.forename: Earl L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Li-Fang
authors.initials: LF
authors.lastname: Hung
authors.forename: Juan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Huang
authors.forename: Terry L
authors.initials: TL
authors.lastname: Blasdel
authors.forename: Tammy L
authors.initials: TL
authors.lastname: Humbird
authors.forename: Kurt H
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Bockhorst
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000831:Animals, Newborn; D001699:Biometry; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D005123:Eye / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology*; D005139:Eyeglasses; D006956:Hyperopia / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D009216:Myopia / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D012029:Refraction, Ocular / Q000502:physiology*; D012160:Retina / Q000503:physiopathology*; D042262:Retinoscopy