title: Quantifying culture gaps between physicians and managers in Dutch hospitals: a survey.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The demands in hospitals for safety and quality, combined with limitations in financing health care require effective cooperation between physicians and managers. The complex relationship between both groups has been described in literature. We aim to add a perspective to literature, by developing a questionnaire which provides an opportunity to quantitatively report and elaborate on the size and content of differences between physicians and managers. Insight gained from use of the questionnaire might enable us to reflect on these differences and could provide practical tools to improve cooperation between physicians and managers, with an aim to enhance hospital performance.
  
  
  METHODS
  The CG-Questionnaire was developed by adjusting, pre-testing, and shortening Kralewski's questionnaire, and appeared suitable to measure culture gaps. It was shortened by exploratory factor analysis, using principal-axis factoring extraction with Varimax rotation. The CG-Questionnaire was sent to all physicians and managers within 37 Dutch general hospitals. ANOVA and paired sample T-tests were used to determine significant differences between perceptions of daily work practices based in both professional cultures; culture gaps. The size and content of culture gaps were determined with descriptive statistics.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The total response (27%) consisted of 929 physicians and 310 managers. The Cronbachs alpha's were 0.70 - 0.79. Statistical analyses showed many differences; culture gaps were found in the present situation; they were even larger in the preferred situation. Differences between both groups can be classified into three categories: (1) culture gaps in the present situation and not in the preferred, (2) culture gaps in the preferred situation and not in the present, and (3) culture gaps in both situations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  With data from the CG-Questionnaire it is now possible to measure the size and content of culture gaps between physicians and managers in hospitals. Results gained with the CG-Questionnaire enables hospitals to reflect on these differences. Combining the results, we distinguished three categories of increasing complexity. We linked these three categories to three methods from intergroup literature (enhanced information, contact and ultimately meta cognition) which could help to improve the cooperation between physicians and managers.
authors.affiliation: Ziekenhuisgroep Twente, Almelo, The Netherlands. h.klopper@zgt.nl
authors.forename: Hanneke A H J
authors.initials: HA
authors.lastname: Klopper-Kes
authors.forename: Sabine
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Siesling
authors.forename: Nienke
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Meerdink
authors.forename: Celeste P M
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: Wilderom
authors.forename: Wim H
authors.initials: WH
authors.lastname: van Harten
mesh_terms: D001291:Attitude of Health Personnel; D003299:Cooperative Behavior; D006740:Hospital Administrators / Q000523:psychology*; D006769:Hospitals, General / Q000458:organization & administration*; D006801:Humans; D007400:Interprofessional Relations; D009426:Netherlands; D015279:Organizational Culture; D010820:Physicians / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires