title: Challenges in the diagnosis of the antiphospholipid syndrome.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an important cause of acquired thromboembolic complications and pregnancy morbidity. Its diagnosis is based on clinical and laboratory criteria, defined by strict guidelines. The original clinical and laboratory criteria for the identification of APS patients were published in 1999, in the so-called Sapporo criteria. In 2006 these criteria were revised, and recently more precise guidelines for analysis of the lupus anticoagulant have been provided. However, several questions related to the diagnosis of APS remain unanswered.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  In addition to providing a historical perspective, this review covers several challenges in the diagnosis of APS with respect to clinical and laboratory features, while highlighting pathogenic pathways of the syndrome. We discuss ongoing dilemmas in the diagnosis of this complex disease. Although antiphospholipid antibodies are found in association with various clinical manifestations, the older established clinical criteria were not substantively altered in the 2006 update. Several laboratory tests recommended in the latest criteria, including phospholipid-dependent coagulation tests for the detection of the lupus anticoagulant and ELISAs for measuring anticardiolipin and beta2-glycoprotein I antibodies, still show methodological and diagnostic shortcomings. In addition, antiphospholipid antibodies have been described against other antigens, but their clinical role remains uncertain.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite updated APS criteria, diagnosis of this syndrome remains challenging. Further research on clinically relevant antibodies and standardization of their detection are needed to improve clinical risk assessment in APS.
authors.affiliation: Coagulation Laboratory, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium. katrien.devreese@uzgent.be
authors.forename: Katrien
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Devreese
authors.forename: Marc F
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Hoylaerts
mesh_terms: D016736:Antiphospholipid Syndrome / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology; D019411:Clinical Laboratory Techniques; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D011247:Pregnancy; D011250:Pregnancy Complications, Hematologic / Q000175:diagnosis