title: Design and development of molecular imaging probes.
abstract: Molecular imaging, the visualization, characterization and measurement of biological processes at the cellular, subcellular level, or even molecular level in living subjects, has rapidly gained importance in the dawning era of personalized medicine. Molecular imaging takes advantage of the traditional diagnostic imaging techniques and introduces molecular imaging probes to determine the expression of indicative molecular markers at different stages of diseases and disorders. As a key component of molecular imaging, molecular imaging probe must be able to specifically reach the target of interest in vivo while retaining long enough to be detected. A desirable molecular imaging probe with clinical translation potential is expected to have unique characteristics. Therefore, design and development of molecular imaging probe is frequently a challenging endeavor for medicinal chemists. This review summarizes the general principles of molecular imaging probe design and some fundamental strategies of molecular imaging probe development with a number of illustrative examples.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA. chenkai@usc.edu
authors.forename: Kai
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: Xiaoyuan
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Chen
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D057054:Molecular Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D015335:Molecular Probes / Q000138:chemical synthesis* / Q000737:chemistry
chemical_list: D015335:Molecular Probes
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2010 Feb;51(2):251-258
references.pmid: 20124048
references.citation: Radiology. 2005 Sep;236(3):753-5
references.pmid: 16118158
references.citation: Methods Mol Biol. 2009;574:47-62
references.pmid: 19685299
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2009 Feb 1;69(3):873-8
references.pmid: 19155297
references.citation: Curr Pharm Des. 2008;14(28):2943-73
references.pmid: 18991712
references.citation: Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2008 Apr;12(4):383-9
references.pmid: 18348676
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2003 Sep;44(9):1413-20
references.pmid: 12960185
references.citation: Mini Rev Med Chem. 2006 Feb;6(2):227-34
references.pmid: 16472190
references.citation: Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2001 Jun 1;40(11):2004-2021
references.pmid: 11433435
references.citation: Genes Dev. 2003 Mar 1;17(5):545-80
references.pmid: 12629038
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2002 Sep;2(9):683-93
references.pmid: 12209157
references.citation: Small. 2007 Nov;3(11):1840-54
references.pmid: 17943716
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2004 Nov 1;64(21):8009-14
references.pmid: 15520209
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2009 Dec;20(12):2199-213
references.pmid: 19719118
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2007 May-Jun;18(3):765-72
references.pmid: 17348700
references.citation: Eur J Nucl Med. 1999 Apr;26(4):328-32
references.pmid: 10199937
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2008 Aug 14;51(15):4504-17
references.pmid: 18637669
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2008 Feb 1;14(3):731-41
references.pmid: 18245533
references.citation: J Clin Oncol. 2008 May 1;26(13):2124-30
references.pmid: 18445841
references.citation: Chem Commun (Camb). 2008 Sep 28;(36):4250-60
references.pmid: 18802536
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2004 Feb 15;64(4):1411-8
references.pmid: 14973076
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2002 Jan;2(1):11-8
references.pmid: 11902581
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2007 Feb;48(2):295-303
references.pmid: 17268028
references.citation: Thromb Res. 2002 Sep 15;107(6):365-71
references.pmid: 12565725
references.citation: Mol Imaging Biol. 2002 Oct;4(5):352-4
references.pmid: 14537109
references.citation: Curr Top Med Chem. 2001 Sep;1(4):277-351
references.pmid: 11899112
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2007 Nov-Dec;18(6):1987-94
references.pmid: 18030991
references.citation: Ann Oncol. 2002;13 Suppl 4:115-24
references.pmid: 12401677
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 May;1020:32-40
references.pmid: 15208181
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2005 Feb;16(1):63-72
references.pmid: 15722017
references.citation: Mol Cancer Ther. 2006 Nov;5(11):2624-33
references.pmid: 17121909
references.citation: Protein Sci. 2006 Jan;15(1):14-27
references.pmid: 16373474
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2008 Oct 9;51(19):5901-4
references.pmid: 18785727
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1954 Oct;210(2):581-95
references.pmid: 13211595
references.citation: Drug Discov Today. 2003 Dec 15;8(24):1128-37
references.pmid: 14678739
references.citation: Neoplasia. 2007 Feb;9(2):166-80
references.pmid: 17356713
references.citation: Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2009 Jun;24(3):289-302
references.pmid: 19538051
references.citation: Acc Chem Res. 2009 Jul 21;42(7):832-41
references.pmid: 19530674
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2008 May;49(5):796-803
references.pmid: 18413389
references.citation: J Natl Cancer Inst. 1960 Feb;24:267-81
references.pmid: 14414406
references.citation: Eur J Endocrinol. 1999 Jul;141(1):1-14
references.pmid: 10407215
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2006 May-Jun;17(3):662-9
references.pmid: 16704203
references.citation: Clin Chem. 2006 Nov;52(11):2162-4
references.pmid: 18061989
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2005 Nov-Dec;16(6):1433-41
references.pmid: 16287239
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2007 Oct 15;13(20):6070-9
references.pmid: 17947470
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Oct 20;106(42):17904-9
references.pmid: 19815497
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2000 Oct 15;60(20):5649-58
references.pmid: 11059756
references.citation: Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009 Aug;36(8):1283-95
references.pmid: 19288096
references.citation: Nature. 1991 Nov 7;354(6348):82-4
references.pmid: 1944576
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2003 Mar;44(3):341-6
references.pmid: 12620998
references.citation: Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009 Jan;36(1):37-47
references.pmid: 18690434
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2009 Dec;20(12):2342-7
references.pmid: 19908826
references.citation: Chem Rev. 1997 Apr 1;97(2):411-448
references.pmid: 11848877
references.citation: Eur J Cancer. 2004 Nov;40(17):2623-32
references.pmid: 15541963
references.citation: Radiology. 2001 May;219(2):316-33
references.pmid: 11323453
references.citation: Science. 1996 Jul 26;273(5274):458-64
references.pmid: 8662529
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2000 Aug;41(8):1369-79
references.pmid: 10945530
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2007 Nov;48(11):1862-70
references.pmid: 17942800
references.citation: Int J Appl Radiat Isot. 1982 May;33(5):363-9
references.pmid: 7095877
references.citation: Nucl Med Biol. 2009 May;36(4):389-93
references.pmid: 19423006
references.citation: Chem Biol. 2000 Jan;7(1):17-25
references.pmid: 10662687
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2008 Mar;49(3):453-61
references.pmid: 18287274
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2006 Dec;47(12):1968-76
references.pmid: 17138739
references.citation: J Am Chem Soc. 2004 Jun 30;126(25):7740-1
references.pmid: 15212497
references.citation: J Biosci Bioeng. 2005 May;99(5):448-56
references.pmid: 16233816
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2001 Jan-Feb;12(1):7-34
references.pmid: 11170362
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2001 Mar 1;61(5):1781-5
references.pmid: 11280722
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2009 Mar 15;69(6):2435-42
references.pmid: 19276378
references.citation: J Proteome Res. 2005 Jul-Aug;4(4):1104-9
references.pmid: 16083259
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2003 Dec;44(12):1927-32
references.pmid: 14660718
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 1995 Oct;36(10):1806-10
references.pmid: 7562047
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2008 May;49(5):804-13
references.pmid: 18413392
references.citation: Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007 Jun;51(2):152-63
references.pmid: 17420716
references.citation: Chembiochem. 2009 May 25;10(8):1293-6
references.pmid: 19422008
references.citation: Nature. 2000 Mar 30;404(6777):465-70
references.pmid: 10761907
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2006 Jul 27;49(15):4767-76
references.pmid: 16854083
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2001 Dec;42(12):1847-55
references.pmid: 11752084
references.citation: Bioconjug Chem. 2010 Feb 17;21(2):270-8
references.pmid: 20102181
references.citation: Cancer Biomark. 2008;4(6):287-305
references.pmid: 19126958
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2001 Jul;19(7):631-5
references.pmid: 11433273
references.citation: Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2005 May;74(5):899-903
references.pmid: 16097324
references.citation: Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009 Jan;36(1):94-103
references.pmid: 18712382
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2006 Aug;24(8):905-8
references.pmid: 16900126
references.citation: Drug Discov Today. 2009 Feb;14(3-4):147-54
references.pmid: 19135549
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2002 Dec;43(12):1699-706
references.pmid: 12468522
references.citation: FASEB J. 2006 Aug;20(10):1599-610
references.pmid: 16873883
references.citation: Acta Neurol Scand. 1992 Feb;85(2):95-102
references.pmid: 1574995
references.citation: Anal Chem. 2004 Sep 15;76(18):5302-12
references.pmid: 15362886
references.citation: Mol Imaging Biol. 2010 Jun;12(3):316-24
references.pmid: 19779897
references.citation: J Am Chem Soc. 2003 Jul 2;125(26):7766-7
references.pmid: 12822971
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2008 Jul 10;51(13):4030-7
references.pmid: 18543899
references.citation: J Nucl Med. 2007 Jun;48(6):987-94
references.pmid: 17504880
references.citation: Nat Chem Biol. 2006 Jul;2(7):381-9
references.pmid: 16767086
references.citation: Science. 2006 May 26;312(5777):1168-71
references.pmid: 16728630