title: The tempted brain eats: pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders.
abstract: What we eat, when and how much, all are influenced by brain reward mechanisms that generate "liking" and "wanting" for foods. As a corollary, dysfunction in reward circuits might contribute to the recent rise of obesity and eating disorders. Here we assess brain mechanisms known to generate "liking" and "wanting" for foods and evaluate their interaction with regulatory mechanisms of hunger and satiety, relevant to clinical issues. "Liking" mechanisms include hedonic circuits that connect together cubic-millimeter hotspots in forebrain limbic structures such as nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum (where opioid/endocannabinoid/orexin signals can amplify sensory pleasure). "Wanting" mechanisms include larger opioid networks in nucleus accumbens, striatum, and amygdala that extend beyond the hedonic hotspots, as well as mesolimbic dopamine systems, and corticolimbic glutamate signals that interact with those systems. We focus on ways in which these brain reward circuits might participate in obesity or in eating disorders.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. berridge@umich.edu
authors.forename: Kent C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Berridge
authors.forename: Chao-Yi
authors.initials: CY
authors.lastname: Ho
authors.forename: Jocelyn M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Richard
authors.forename: Alexandra G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: DiFeliceantonio
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D001068:Feeding and Eating Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D009415:Nerve Net / Q000503:physiopathology*; D009765:Obesity / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D057181:Pleasure
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2002 Jul;76(3):389-95
references.pmid: 12117575
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1985;443:8-21
references.pmid: 3860080
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;164(8):1149-59
references.pmid: 17671276
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2004;126(4):807-19
references.pmid: 15207316
references.citation: Annu Rev Psychol. 2003;54:25-53
references.pmid: 12185211
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2009;56 Suppl 1:139-48
references.pmid: 18619474
references.citation: J Exp Anal Behav. 1973 Sep;20(2):163-81
references.pmid: 4752087
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2008 Aug 6;94(5):637-42
references.pmid: 18501391
references.citation: Brain Cogn. 2003 Jun;52(1):106-28
references.pmid: 12812810
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Sep 22;437(7058):556-9
references.pmid: 16100511
references.citation: Psychol Rev. 1970 Jan;77(1):16-31
references.pmid: 4908030
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2008 Oct 12;363(1507):3191-200
references.pmid: 18640912
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2003 Sep 15;464(2):220-37
references.pmid: 12898614
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Sep 30;100(20):11696-701
references.pmid: 12975524
references.citation: J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1978 Aug;92(4):720-41
references.pmid: 690292
references.citation: Brain Res. 2005 Jan 21;1031(2):194-201
references.pmid: 15649444
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1980 May;12(5):729-33
references.pmid: 6248899
references.citation: Science. 2007 May 11;316(5826):904-6
references.pmid: 17431137
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2007 Jun;25(11):3422-8
references.pmid: 17553011
references.citation: Appetite. 2004 Apr;42(2):131-8
references.pmid: 15010176
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 Sep 15;18(18):7502-10
references.pmid: 9736668
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(2):119-25
references.pmid: 16115685
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2005 Nov 15;86(4):475-9
references.pmid: 16185725
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Oct;78(4):834S-842S
references.pmid: 14522747
references.citation: Brain Res. 1978 Mar 24;143(2):263-79
references.pmid: 630409
references.citation: Cereb Cortex. 2003 Oct;13(10):1064-71
references.pmid: 12967923
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2008 Aug 6;94(5):675-80
references.pmid: 18513761
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2006 Mar;23(6):1596-604
references.pmid: 16553623
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2008 Oct 12;363(1507):3137-46
references.pmid: 18640920
references.citation: Behav Brain Funct. 2007 Jun 13;3:28
references.pmid: 17567902
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2005 Dec 5;493(1):72-85
references.pmid: 16255002
references.citation: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003 Nov;60(11):1145-53
references.pmid: 14609890
references.citation: PLoS One. 2008 Jan 30;3(1):e1506
references.pmid: 18231593
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Oct 1;21(19):7831-40
references.pmid: 11567074
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2001;106(4):699-715
references.pmid: 11682157
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2009 Apr 10;159(4):1193-9
references.pmid: 19409204
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2000 Nov 1;20(21):8122-30
references.pmid: 11050134
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Jan 1;23(1):7-11
references.pmid: 12514194
references.citation: J Neuroendocrinol. 2000 May;12(5):453-60
references.pmid: 10792585
references.citation: Annu Rev Neurosci. 2000;23:473-500
references.pmid: 10845072
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Feb;56(2):265-72
references.pmid: 9050084
references.citation: Q Rev Biol. 1979 Mar;54(1):1-29
references.pmid: 379894
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Oct 1;500(1-3):37-49
references.pmid: 15464019
references.citation: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007 Nov;32(11):2267-78
references.pmid: 17406653
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989 Mar;32(3):769-72
references.pmid: 2740428
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2002 Dec 2;137(1-2):75-114
references.pmid: 12445717
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 2006 Oct;29(10):571-7
references.pmid: 16904760
references.citation: Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2007 Dec;7(6):607-12
references.pmid: 18037344
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Oct 15;23(28):9395-402
references.pmid: 14561867
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Feb 4;24(5):1058-69
references.pmid: 14762124
references.citation: J Neuroendocrinol. 2008 Sep;20(9):1099-100
references.pmid: 18624929
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(2):126-47
references.pmid: 16183121
references.citation: Science. 1968 Aug 23;161(3843):751-6
references.pmid: 5663800
references.citation: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002 Dec;27(6):1027-35
references.pmid: 12464459
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2000 Mar;24(2):173-98
references.pmid: 10714382
references.citation: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jun;17(6):1220-5
references.pmid: 19282821
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2006 Nov;96(5):2399-409
references.pmid: 16885520
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Nov 24;106(47):20016-20
references.pmid: 19901333
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2009 Jun;33 Suppl 2:S30-3
references.pmid: 19528977
references.citation: Neuron. 2004 Oct 28;44(3):509-20
references.pmid: 15504330
references.citation: Cell Metab. 2009 Aug;10(2):89-98
references.pmid: 19656487
references.citation: Neuron. 2002 Feb 28;33(5):815-26
references.pmid: 11879657
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2002 Jul;76(3):353-64
references.pmid: 12117572
references.citation: J Addict Dis. 2004;23(3):39-53
references.pmid: 15256343
references.citation: Science. 1978 Jul 21;201(4352):267-9
references.pmid: 663655
references.citation: Appetite. 2009 Aug;53(1):1-8
references.pmid: 19500625
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 1993 Dec;32(12):1305-14
references.pmid: 8152522
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2006 Jul 29;361(1471):1137-48
references.pmid: 16815797
references.citation: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jan;17(1):16-24
references.pmid: 19107124
references.citation: Symp Oral Sens Percept. 1973;(4):254-78
references.pmid: 4612820
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997 Mar;130(1):2-13
references.pmid: 9089844
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2006 Nov 30;89(4):531-5
references.pmid: 16822531
references.citation: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1998 Dec;28(3):309-69
references.pmid: 9858756
references.citation: Science. 1971 Sep 17;173(4002):1103-7
references.pmid: 5098954
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1995 Spring;19(1):143-57
references.pmid: 7770194
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 2005 Feb;119(1):5-15
references.pmid: 15727507
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2006 Jul 29;361(1471):1123-36
references.pmid: 16815796
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Dec 15;90(24):11738-42
references.pmid: 8265619
references.citation: J Pers Soc Psychol. 1969 Aug;12(4):289-94
references.pmid: 5821855
references.citation: Psychol Rev. 1962 Mar;69:74-90
references.pmid: 13920110
references.citation: Neuroimage. 2003 Aug;19(4):1709-15
references.pmid: 12948725
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008 Apr;29(4):208-17
references.pmid: 18353447
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2004 Jan;19(2):376-86
references.pmid: 14725632
references.citation: Nutr Res Rev. 2001 Jun;14(1):65-86
references.pmid: 19087417
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1977;290:18-34
references.pmid: 276291
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2010 Apr 28;167(1):11-20
references.pmid: 20149847
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2008 Dec;11(12):1376-7
references.pmid: 18978779
references.citation: Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2003 Dec;27(8):1201-12
references.pmid: 14659475
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2006;153:75-105
references.pmid: 16876569
references.citation: Learn Mem. 2007 Aug 29;14(9):581-9
references.pmid: 17761543
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999 Jun 29;877:176-201
references.pmid: 10415650
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 1990 Mar;47(3):539-43
references.pmid: 2359766
references.citation: Neuroimage. 2004 Apr;21(4):1790-7
references.pmid: 15050599
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2006 May 10;26(19):5160-6
references.pmid: 16687507
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Dec;90(6):1453-6
references.pmid: 19828708
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2003 Mar;17(5):1067-72
references.pmid: 12653982
references.citation: Appetite. 2010 Apr;54(2):243-54
references.pmid: 19922752
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Nov;58(3):801-11
references.pmid: 9329075
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2000 May;66(1):3-14
references.pmid: 10837838
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2003 Dec 17;147(1-2):149-55
references.pmid: 14659580
references.citation: Brain Res. 2010 Feb 16;1314:91-102
references.pmid: 19748490
references.citation: Lancet. 2001 Feb 3;357(9253):354-7
references.pmid: 11210998
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(2):148-72
references.pmid: 16125239
references.citation: Q J Exp Psychol B. 1989 May;41(2):121-38
references.pmid: 2748936
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1986 Feb;6(2):325-30
references.pmid: 3950700
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2005 Dec 5;493(1):122-31
references.pmid: 16254987
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005 Jan;6(1):48-56
references.pmid: 15611726
references.citation: Brain Res. 1996 May 25;722(1-2):109-17
references.pmid: 8813355
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005 Sep;6(9):691-702
references.pmid: 16136173
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2009 May 20;29(20):6500-13
references.pmid: 19458221
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Oct 15;23(28):9445-51
references.pmid: 14561874
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2008 Jul 9;28(28):7184-92
references.pmid: 18614688
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997 May;131(1):1-8
references.pmid: 9181629
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1999 Oct 1;19(19):RC29
references.pmid: 10493774
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Feb 11;24(6):1265-71
references.pmid: 14960596
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2009 Sep 7;98(3):318-25
references.pmid: 19545583
references.citation: Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Apr 1;32(3):620-8
references.pmid: 18262320
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2007 Jul 24;91(4):432-9
references.pmid: 17531274
references.citation: Nature. 2004 Oct 14;431(7010):760-7
references.pmid: 15483596
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1993;110(3):355-64
references.pmid: 7831431
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003 Feb;74(3):635-9
references.pmid: 12543229
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2001 Nov 16;12(16):3549-52
references.pmid: 11733709
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008 Aug;199(3):457-80
references.pmid: 18311558
references.citation: Nebr Symp Motiv. 2004;50:1-18
references.pmid: 15160636
references.citation: Annu Rev Psychol. 2006;57:87-115
references.pmid: 16318590
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2007 Aug 15;91(5):459-72
references.pmid: 17081571
references.citation: Nature. 1998 Oct 22;395(6704):763-70
references.pmid: 9796811
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2007 Jul 24;91(4):397-403
references.pmid: 17498758
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Mar;89(3):980S-984S
references.pmid: 19211814
references.citation: Neuroimage. 2004 Dec;23(4):1486-93
references.pmid: 15589112
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2003 Nov;4(11):873-84
references.pmid: 14595399
references.citation: Med Hypotheses. 2009 May;72(5):518-26
references.pmid: 19223127
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2001 Jan;25(1):53-74
references.pmid: 11166078
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1986 Dec;25(6):1149-51
references.pmid: 3809216
references.citation: Neuron. 2006 Sep 21;51(6):811-22
references.pmid: 16982425
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2004 Aug;82(1):57-61
references.pmid: 15234591
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2008 Mar 17;188(1):227-32
references.pmid: 18068824
references.citation: Front Neuroendocrinol. 2010 Jan;31(1):61-78
references.pmid: 19836413
references.citation: Cell Metab. 2009 Feb;9(2):117-23
references.pmid: 19187770
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008;32(1):20-39
references.pmid: 17617461
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Mar 14;27(11):2837-45
references.pmid: 17360905
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007 Apr;191(3):497-506
references.pmid: 17031710
references.citation: Neuroimage. 2004 Feb;21(2):781-8
references.pmid: 14980581
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004 Jan;27(8):765-76
references.pmid: 15019426
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2009 Sep 30;29(39):12220-8
references.pmid: 19793980
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2003 Feb;165(4):370-7
references.pmid: 12447606
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 2006 May;163(5):786-8
references.pmid: 16648316
references.citation: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002 Sep 1;68(1):23-33
references.pmid: 12167550
references.citation: Neuroscientist. 2006 Dec;12(6):500-11
references.pmid: 17079516
references.citation: Med Hypotheses. 2009 Dec;73(6):892-9
references.pmid: 19643550
references.citation: Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Nov;14(9):394-6
references.pmid: 14580755
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2005 Dec 14;25(50):11777-86
references.pmid: 16354936
references.citation: Brain Res. 2010 Feb 16;1314:74-90
references.pmid: 19815001
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2003 Aug;18(3):695-703
references.pmid: 12911766
references.citation: BMC Biol. 2006 Apr 13;4:8
references.pmid: 16613600
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Nov 26;23(34):10827-31
references.pmid: 14645475
references.citation: Appetite. 2007 Sep;49(2):353-67
references.pmid: 17561308
references.citation: Peptides. 2005 Apr;26(4):621-9
references.pmid: 15752577
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Oct 10;27(41):11075-82
references.pmid: 17928449
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Feb 14;27(7):1594-605
references.pmid: 17301168
references.citation: Life Sci. 1993;53(9):669-79
references.pmid: 8102768
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2000;99(2):267-77
references.pmid: 10938432
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002 May;26(3):321-52
references.pmid: 12034134
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009 Aug;10(8):573-84
references.pmid: 19603056
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 2007 Aug;30(8):375-81
references.pmid: 17604133
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2008 Apr;11(4):423-5
references.pmid: 18344996
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Sep;58(1):183-8
references.pmid: 9264089
references.citation: Coll Antropol. 2007 Mar;31(1):33-8
references.pmid: 17600916
references.citation: Brain Res Rev. 2006 Jun;51(1):85-107
references.pmid: 16364446
references.citation: Science. 2007 Sep 7;317(5843):1355
references.pmid: 17690262
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 2009 Oct;32(10):517-24
references.pmid: 19758714
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2005 Nov;8(11):1481-9
references.pmid: 16251991
references.citation: Indian J Exp Biol. 1993 Sep;31(9):750-4
references.pmid: 8276443
references.citation: J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1979 Jun;93(3):446-66
references.pmid: 479393
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2005 Nov;22(10):2617-34
references.pmid: 16307604
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2009 Sep 9;29(36):11215-25
references.pmid: 19741128
references.citation: Sci STKE. 2005 Mar 29;2005(277):pe15
references.pmid: 15798103
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2009 Sep;33(9):1063-73
references.pmid: 19621020
references.citation: Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2005 Oct;20(5):368-78
references.pmid: 16272755
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2008 Oct 12;363(1507):3147-58
references.pmid: 18640921
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002 Oct;26(6):713-28
references.pmid: 12479844
references.citation: Obes Surg. 2010 Mar;20(3):369-74
references.pmid: 19902317
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2001 Jan;4(1):95-102
references.pmid: 11135651
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2003;122(1):17-20
references.pmid: 14596845
references.citation: Annu Rev Psychol. 1986;37:77-107
references.pmid: 3963784
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 Dec 1;18(23):9996-10015
references.pmid: 9822755
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2005 Mar 16;84(3):363-9
references.pmid: 15763573
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 1991 Feb;105(1):3-14
references.pmid: 2025391
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008 Oct;32(8):1601-6
references.pmid: 18675299
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2003 Oct;18(7):2059-68
references.pmid: 14622239
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1996 Autumn;20(3):505-35
references.pmid: 8880737
references.citation: J Nutr. 2009 Mar;139(3):620-2
references.pmid: 19176747
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2009 Jan 23;196(2):155-67
references.pmid: 18955088
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2005 Oct;8(10):1286-8
references.pmid: 16189534
references.citation: Brain. 2001 Sep;124(Pt 9):1720-33
references.pmid: 11522575
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2005 Jun;29(6):607-14
references.pmid: 15795750
references.citation: Appetite. 2009 Apr;52(2):430-6
references.pmid: 19121351
references.citation: J Adolesc Health. 2009 Sep;45(3 Suppl):S8-17
references.pmid: 19699441
references.citation: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1993 Sep-Dec;18(3):247-91
references.pmid: 8401595
references.citation: Neuron. 2001 Jun;30(3):819-28
references.pmid: 11430814
references.citation: Brain Res. 1993 Oct 8;624(1-2):1-10
references.pmid: 8252379
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2002 Jun;136(4):550-7
references.pmid: 12055133
references.citation: Synapse. 2002 Jun 1;44(3):175-80
references.pmid: 11954049
references.citation: Behav Pharmacol. 2005 Sep;16(5-6):297-313
references.pmid: 16148436
references.citation: Appetite. 1991 Apr;16(2):103-20
references.pmid: 2064389
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2002 Jul;76(3):365-77
references.pmid: 12117573
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Apr 15;21(8):2793-8
references.pmid: 11306631
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2009 Jul 14;97(5):537-50
references.pmid: 19336238
references.citation: Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Mar;21(3):159-65
references.pmid: 19926299
references.citation: Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2008 May;294(5):E809
references.pmid: 18451261
references.citation: Appetite. 2006 Jul;47(1):10-7
references.pmid: 16647788
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007 Apr;191(3):439-59
references.pmid: 17318502
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2005 Dec 15;86(5):773-95
references.pmid: 16289609
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Aug;3(8):655-66
references.pmid: 12154366
references.citation: Annu Rev Neurosci. 2007;30:367-98
references.pmid: 17506645
references.citation: Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59:55-92
references.pmid: 18154499
references.citation: Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009 Jan;296(1):R9-R19
references.pmid: 18945945
references.citation: Psychol Sci. 2006 Jun;17(6):521-5
references.pmid: 16771803
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31(7):987-1002
references.pmid: 17559933
references.citation: PLoS Comput Biol. 2009 Jul;5(7):e1000437
references.pmid: 19609350
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Aug;162(8):1403-13
references.pmid: 16055761
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Aug 1;27(31):8161-5
references.pmid: 17670959
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2007 Aug 15;91(5):473-8
references.pmid: 17137609
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2005 Sep 21;25(38):8637-49
references.pmid: 16177031
references.citation: Neuron. 2006 Sep 21;51(6):801-10
references.pmid: 16982424
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Feb 18;24(7):1551-60
references.pmid: 14973230
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2005 Dec 15;86(5):747-61
references.pmid: 16256152
references.citation: J Nutr. 2009 Mar;139(3):617-9
references.pmid: 19176750
references.citation: Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003 May;284(5):R1260-8
references.pmid: 12521926
references.citation: Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1978;18:89-109
references.pmid: 77124