title: Molecular targets and mechanisms for ethanol action in glycine receptors.
abstract: Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are recognized as the primary mediators of neuronal inhibition in the spinal cord, brain stem and higher brain regions known to be sensitive to ethanol. Building evidence supports the notion that ethanol acting on GlyRs causes at least a subset of its behavioral effects and may be involved in modulating ethanol intake. For over two decades, GlyRs have been studied at the molecular level as targets for ethanol action. Despite the advances in understanding the effects of ethanol in vivo and in vitro, the precise molecular sites and mechanisms of action for ethanol in ligand-gated ion channels in general, and in GlyRs specifically, are just now starting to become understood. The present review focuses on advances in our knowledge produced by using molecular biology, pressure antagonism, electrophysiology and molecular modeling strategies over the last two decades to probe, identify and model the initial molecular sites and mechanisms of ethanol action in GlyRs. The molecular targets on the GlyR are covered on a global perspective, which includes the intracellular, transmembrane and extracellular domains. The latter has received increasing attention in recent years. Recent molecular models of the sites of ethanol action in GlyRs and their implications to our understanding of possible mechanism of ethanol action and novel targets for drug development in GlyRs are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Alcohol and Brain Research Laboratories, Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
authors.forename: Daya I
authors.initials: DI
authors.lastname: Perkins
authors.forename: James R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Trudell
authors.forename: Daniel K
authors.initials: DK
authors.lastname: Crawford
authors.forename: Ronald L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Alkana
authors.forename: Daryl L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Davies
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001665:Binding Sites / Q000187:drug effects; D000431:Ethanol / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000494:pharmacology*; D006801:Humans; D008958:Models, Molecular; D015394:Molecular Structure; D018009:Receptors, Glycine / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D013329:Structure-Activity Relationship
chemical_list: D018009:Receptors, Glycine; D000431:Ethanol
references.citation: Anesth Analg. 2007 Feb;104(2):318-24
references.pmid: 17242087
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 2001 Jul;95(1):123-31
references.pmid: 11465549
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2009 Jul;330(1):198-205
references.pmid: 19380602
references.citation: Neurosci Res. 1995 Nov;23(4):377-82
references.pmid: 8602277
references.citation: Alcohol Alcohol. 2007 Jan-Feb;42(1):11-8
references.pmid: 17098748
references.citation: Undersea Hyperb Med. 1996 Mar;23(1):35-41
references.pmid: 8653064
references.citation: Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1992;47:335-47
references.pmid: 1354918
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1998 Feb 6;273(6):3314-9
references.pmid: 9452448
references.citation: J Chem Inf Model. 2007 Jul-Aug;47(4):1572-9
references.pmid: 17602605
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002 Mar;300(3):967-75
references.pmid: 11861805
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2003 Mar;44(4):493-502
references.pmid: 12646286
references.citation: Brain Res. 1988 Jul 12;455(2):377-80
references.pmid: 2900060
references.citation: Proteins. 2008 May 1;71(2):972-81
references.pmid: 18004757
references.citation: Amino Acids. 2010 Apr;38(4):1051-5
references.pmid: 19543795
references.citation: Nature. 1971 Jun 11;231(5302):368-71
references.pmid: 4931002
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 1978 Feb;48(2):104-10
references.pmid: 655442
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2007 Oct;103(2):580-9
references.pmid: 17714449
references.citation: Sci Signal. 2008 Jul 15;1(28):re7
references.pmid: 18632551
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1977 Nov 1;470(3):509-10
references.pmid: 921966
references.citation: Anesth Analg. 2002 Sep;95(3):578-82, table of contents
references.pmid: 12198041
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Jan;296(1):77-83
references.pmid: 11123365
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1981 May;19(3):432-7
references.pmid: 7266466
references.citation: Pharmacology. 1981;22(3):199-208
references.pmid: 7208603
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1986 Jun 17;25(12):3619-25
references.pmid: 3718947
references.citation: Biophys J. 2007 May 1;92(9):3159-65
references.pmid: 17293400
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2000 Sep 29;302(4):955-77
references.pmid: 10993735
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2005 Jan 7;280(1):308-16
references.pmid: 15522868
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1995 Jul 11;34(27):8564-75
references.pmid: 7612598
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1995 Feb;50(2):199-205
references.pmid: 7740058
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 May 26;95(11):6504-9
references.pmid: 9600996
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1996 Aug;50(2):402-6
references.pmid: 8700149
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2004 Nov 23;371(2-3):230-4
references.pmid: 15519763
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2006 Dec 22;281(51):39300-7
references.pmid: 17040914
references.citation: Pharmacol Ther. 1997;73(2):121-46
references.pmid: 9131721
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2008 Aug;106(3):1337-49
references.pmid: 18485105
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Feb;3(2):102-14
references.pmid: 11836518
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1994 Dec;46(6):1156-9
references.pmid: 7808436
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 1996 May;118(2):378-84
references.pmid: 8735641
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1998 Aug 7;354(2-3):239-44
references.pmid: 9754925
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 May 30;103(22):8546-51
references.pmid: 16581914
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2006 Feb 8;26(6):1749-58
references.pmid: 16467523
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2001 Sep;60(3):584-94
references.pmid: 11502891
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001 Aug;25(8):1098-106
references.pmid: 11505039
references.citation: Pharmacol Rev. 1972 Dec;24(4):583-655
references.pmid: 4565956
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1995 Jul 11;34(27):8576-88
references.pmid: 7612599
references.citation: Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006 May;160(5):473-8
references.pmid: 16651488
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2006 Feb;50(2):174-81
references.pmid: 16225893
references.citation: Alcohol. 2007 May;41(3):211-21
references.pmid: 17591544
references.citation: Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995 May;38(2):155-71
references.pmid: 7671767
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Dec 9;100(25):15218-23
references.pmid: 14625373
references.citation: Nature. 1984 Aug 16-22;310(5978):599-601
references.pmid: 6462249
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1999 Oct;56(4):768-74
references.pmid: 10496960
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1984 Jan;25(1):123-30
references.pmid: 6546781
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Apr 20;276(16):12556-64
references.pmid: 11278873
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2008 Oct 10;283(41):27698-27706
references.pmid: 18658152
references.citation: Life Sci. 1988;43(24):1973-82
references.pmid: 3210897
references.citation: Nature. 1997 Sep 25;389(6649):334-5
references.pmid: 9311772
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1973 Jan 26;291(2):321-7
references.pmid: 4347901
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Jan 4;445(7123):116-9
references.pmid: 17167423
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2002 Nov 8;277(45):43002-10
references.pmid: 12226083
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990 Jun;253(3):1229-35
references.pmid: 2359024
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1992 Jan 25;267(3):1426-9
references.pmid: 1346133
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2010 Mar;58(3):676-81
references.pmid: 19913039
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2004 Feb 6;279(6):4887-93
references.pmid: 14610076
references.citation: EMBO J. 1991 Sep;10(9):2401-9
references.pmid: 1651228
references.citation: Nature. 2003 Jan 16;421(6920):272-5
references.pmid: 12529644
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1993 Oct 25;268(30):22802-8
references.pmid: 8226790
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2004 Jun;91(6):2685-95
references.pmid: 14762156
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1999 Oct;23(10):1563-70
references.pmid: 10549986
references.citation: Pharmacol Rev. 1989 Dec;41(4):489-537
references.pmid: 2700603
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1994 Sep 22;263(1-2):25-9
references.pmid: 7821359
references.citation: Neuroscience. 1988 May;25(2):613-24
references.pmid: 2840602
references.citation: Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1989;29:365-402
references.pmid: 2543272
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996 Apr;277(1):411-6
references.pmid: 8613949
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2003 Feb;89(2):806-13
references.pmid: 12574458
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Sep 22;24(38):8379-82
references.pmid: 15385620
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1992 Jul;13(7):291-6
references.pmid: 1380742
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2006 Feb;96(3):885-92
references.pmid: 16405501
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2007 May;97(5):3806-11
references.pmid: 17376852
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2005 Oct;26(10):503-10
references.pmid: 16126282
references.citation: Alcohol. 2007 May;41(3):155-62
references.pmid: 17521845
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 1989 Jan;96(1):9-16
references.pmid: 2784337
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 2001 Aug;95(2):470-7
references.pmid: 11506122
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2009 Oct 2;284(40):27304-14
references.pmid: 19656948
references.citation: J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62 Suppl 20:4-10
references.pmid: 11584874
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999 Feb;141(4):339-50
references.pmid: 10090641
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Dec 23;105(51):20523-8
references.pmid: 19074265
references.citation: Brain Res. 2003 Feb 14;963(1-2):165-77
references.pmid: 12560122
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1982 Feb;16(2):341-6
references.pmid: 7071084
references.citation: Prog Neurobiol. 1991;36(3):171-94
references.pmid: 1673253
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 1995 Mar;18(3):121-7
references.pmid: 7754520
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1994 Oct;18(5):1190-5
references.pmid: 7847605
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006 Feb;30(2):349-58
references.pmid: 16441284
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994 Jul;270(1):61-9
references.pmid: 8035343
references.citation: Brain Res. 1990 Jan 22;507(2):332-6
references.pmid: 2186844
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1992 Feb;16(1):17-22
references.pmid: 1558298
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2009 Dec;331(3):933-9
references.pmid: 19773530
references.citation: J Pharm Pharmacol. 1983 May;35(5):306-11
references.pmid: 6134799
references.citation: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Jun 11;74(3):223-34
references.pmid: 15194200
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2004 Mar 19;279(12):11198-205
references.pmid: 14715650
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1999 Aug 13;274(33):23006-12
references.pmid: 10438467
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2005 Mar;8(3):339-45
references.pmid: 15696164
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996 Feb;276(2):667-75
references.pmid: 8632335
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2005 Mar 4;346(4):967-89
references.pmid: 15701510
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 1991 Oct;14(10):458-61
references.pmid: 1722365
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Aug 16;91(17):8200-4
references.pmid: 8058780
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1985 May 21;24(11):2624-32
references.pmid: 4027217
references.citation: Nature. 2001 May 17;411(6835):269-76
references.pmid: 11357122
references.citation: J Physiol. 1995 Mar 15;483 ( Pt 3):613-9
references.pmid: 7776247
references.citation: Nature. 1994 Feb 17;367(6464):607-14
references.pmid: 7509043
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1993 Oct;17(5):935-9
references.pmid: 8279677
references.citation: Cell Mol Life Sci. 2001 May;58(5-6):760-93
references.pmid: 11437237
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 1997 Mar;77(3):1306-12
references.pmid: 9084598
references.citation: Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2000;40:431-58
references.pmid: 10836143
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1997 Nov;18(11):425-9
references.pmid: 9426470
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2003 Aug;90(2):870-5
references.pmid: 12702707
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 1993 Oct;70(4):1339-49
references.pmid: 7506753
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2009 Jan 14;29(2):543-9
references.pmid: 19144854
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1991;625:54-70
references.pmid: 2058905
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1980 Jul;18(1):84-90
references.pmid: 7412765
references.citation: Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1979;19:159-78
references.pmid: 378102
references.citation: Alcohol. 2007 May;41(3):145-53
references.pmid: 17521846
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 2003 May 23;469(1-3):37-45
references.pmid: 12782183
references.citation: Prog Neurobiol. 1988;30(4):271-307
references.pmid: 2449704
references.citation: Anesth Analg. 2003 Jan;96(1):97-101, table of contents
references.pmid: 12505932
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2002 Sep;43(4):788-98
references.pmid: 12367623
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2000 May;57(5):932-9
references.pmid: 10779376
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2001 Nov;86(5):2426-34
references.pmid: 11698532
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2006 Mar;316(3):1360-8
references.pmid: 16272217
references.citation: Brain Res. 1989 Jun 5;489(1):93-100
references.pmid: 2545309
references.citation: Nature. 1982 Dec 9;300(5892):487-93
references.pmid: 6755267
references.citation: Physiol Chem Phys. 1982;14(2):157-64
references.pmid: 7184036
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2006 Feb 21;45(7):2014-26
references.pmid: 16475790
references.citation: Life Sci. 1978 Jan;22(3):239-44
references.pmid: 622002
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2004 Aug;90(4):962-9
references.pmid: 15287902
references.citation: Subst Alcohol Actions Misuse. 1982;3(1-2):41-6
references.pmid: 7135157
references.citation: Nature. 1975 Oct 30;257(5529):811-3
references.pmid: 241941
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001 Oct;157(4):401-10
references.pmid: 11605100
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Apr 15;21(8):2589-99
references.pmid: 11306612
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005 Jan;29(1):27-37
references.pmid: 15654288
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Jan 1;457(7225):115-8
references.pmid: 18987630
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1989 Oct;251(1):164-8
references.pmid: 2552072
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2005 Nov;68(5):1291-300
references.pmid: 16103045
references.citation: Undersea Biomed Res. 1974 Mar;1(1):1-28
references.pmid: 4619860
references.citation: Nature. 1992 Jan 23;355(6358):371-3
references.pmid: 1731252
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996 Aug;278(2):732-40
references.pmid: 8768725
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1985 Aug;23(2):309-16
references.pmid: 4059316
references.citation: Dig Dis. 2005;23(3-4):214-21
references.pmid: 16508285
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2002 Jun;26(6):773-8
references.pmid: 12068244
references.citation: Nature. 1997 Sep 25;389(6649):385-9
references.pmid: 9311780
references.citation: Nature. 1987 Jul 9-15;328(6126):113-4
references.pmid: 3600786
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 1996 Dec;119(7):1331-6
references.pmid: 8968539
references.citation: Brain Res. 2009 Dec 11;1305 Suppl:S27-36
references.pmid: 19781529
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Sep;81(17):5412-6
references.pmid: 6591197
references.citation: Physiol Rev. 1982 Oct;62(4 Pt 1):1341-77
references.pmid: 6127740
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2004 Jun;89(5):1175-85
references.pmid: 15147510
references.citation: J Neurochem. 1991 Aug;57(2):384-90
references.pmid: 1712827
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1981 Jun;217(3):770-5
references.pmid: 7230006
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 2001 Jun;94(6):1026-33
references.pmid: 11465594
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2000 Nov;84(5):2409-16
references.pmid: 11067983
references.citation: Neurochem Int. 1999 Aug;35(2):143-52
references.pmid: 10405998
references.citation: Nature. 2008 Sep 25;455(7212):473-4
references.pmid: 18818642
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):42-52
references.pmid: 14500778
references.citation: Agents Actions. 1987 Aug;21(3-4):320-2
references.pmid: 3687588
references.citation: Curr Pharm Des. 2007;13(23):2350-67
references.pmid: 17692006
references.citation: Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 2004 Jun 18;125(1-2):86-95
references.pmid: 15193425
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2005 Feb 7;482(2):123-41
references.pmid: 15611994
references.citation: J Chem Inf Model. 2005 Jan-Feb;45(1):128-35
references.pmid: 15667138
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Jan 1;457(7225):111-4
references.pmid: 18987633
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1973 Jan 26;291(2):328-34
references.pmid: 4347902
references.citation: Life Sci. 1988;43(26):2221-9
references.pmid: 3210903
references.citation: Anesth Analg. 2001 Jan;92(1):123-7
references.pmid: 11133613
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998 Nov;22(8):1689-97
references.pmid: 9835282
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1981 Jan;19(1):49-55
references.pmid: 7207463
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1980 Jun 20;599(1):336-40
references.pmid: 7397157
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993 Oct;267(1):522-37
references.pmid: 8229784
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1995 Jun;19(3):693-700
references.pmid: 7573795
references.citation: Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1954 Jan;85(1):144-9
references.pmid: 13134316
references.citation: Alcohol Alcohol Suppl. 1987;1:139-45
references.pmid: 3426670
references.citation: J Neurochem. 1993 Apr;60(4):1548-53
references.pmid: 7681105
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1972 Jan 17;255(1):171-7
references.pmid: 5010992
references.citation: Biophys J. 1999 Nov;77(5):2563-74
references.pmid: 10545357
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999 May;289(2):774-80
references.pmid: 10215652
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2002 Sep;43(4):607-18
references.pmid: 12367606
references.citation: Int Rev Neurobiol. 2005;65:53-87
references.pmid: 16140053
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2008 Oct;55(5):835-43
references.pmid: 18639563
references.citation: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1982;77(1):11-6
references.pmid: 6812114
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2007 Jan;10(1):40-8
references.pmid: 17159992
references.citation: J Biomol Struct Dyn. 1995 Feb;12(4):725-54
references.pmid: 7779297
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 2000 Oct;93(4):1095-101
references.pmid: 11020766
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1992 Jun 28;654:61-9
references.pmid: 1321582
references.citation: J Gen Physiol. 2004 Apr;123(4):341-56
references.pmid: 15051806
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 May 30;103(22):8540-5
references.pmid: 16698930
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002 Feb;300(2):526-34
references.pmid: 11805213
references.citation: J Chem Inf Model. 2008 Feb;48(2):344-9
references.pmid: 18197653
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2004 Aug 6;279(32):33919-27
references.pmid: 15169788
references.citation: Fed Proc. 1977 Apr;36(5):1663-7
references.pmid: 191296
references.citation: Protein Eng. 2002 Jun;15(6):443-54
references.pmid: 12082162
references.citation: Br J Anaesth. 1978 Nov;50(11):1091-7
references.pmid: 718777
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2007 Sep;102(6):2097-2109
references.pmid: 17561937
references.citation: Physiol Rev. 2004 Oct;84(4):1051-95
references.pmid: 15383648
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004 Feb;28(2):217-27
references.pmid: 15112929
references.citation: Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1997 Oct 3;49(1-2):63-70
references.pmid: 9387864
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 1995 Feb 17;246(2):317-30
references.pmid: 7869383
references.citation: Undersea Biomed Res. 1979 Mar;6(1):47-53
references.pmid: 223266
references.citation: Life Sci. 1976 Mar 1;18(5):489-97
references.pmid: 1256249
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2010 Jan;112(1):307-17
references.pmid: 19878433
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2005 Aug;49(2):243-53
references.pmid: 15993446
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2006 Feb 10;281(6):3305-11
references.pmid: 16361257
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Nov 26;462(7272):420-1
references.pmid: 19940907
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Mar 15;21(6):RC136
references.pmid: 11245705
references.citation: J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1979 Apr;46(4):756-65
references.pmid: 457554
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003 May;27(5):743-55
references.pmid: 12766618
references.citation: Science. 2004 May 7;304(5672):884-7
references.pmid: 15131310
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 1973 Mar;9(2):131-43
references.pmid: 4711696
references.citation: Sci STKE. 2005 Nov 08;2005(309):re14
references.pmid: 16278489
references.citation: Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1984;24:43-64
references.pmid: 6329077
references.citation: J Gen Physiol. 2007 Dec;130(6):569-79
references.pmid: 18040059
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2008 Mar;104(6):1649-62
references.pmid: 18036150
references.citation: Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998 Aug;22(5):1132-6
references.pmid: 9726286
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Aug 1;97(16):9305-10
references.pmid: 10908659
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 1998 Feb 6;242(1):25-8
references.pmid: 9509996
references.citation: Science. 1950 Jul 21;112(2899):91-2
references.pmid: 15442245