title: Tamoxifen and raloxifene suppress the proliferation of estrogen receptor-negative cells through inhibition of glutamine uptake.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Modulation of estrogen receptor (ER) plays a central role in selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) molecular mechanism of action, although studies have indicated that additional, non-ER-mediated mechanisms exist. It has been suggested that the induction of oxidative stress by SERM could be one of the non-ER-mediated mechanisms held responsible for their pro-apoptotic role in ER-negative cells. Tumor cells are known for their high requirement of glutamine (Gln) that serves multiple functions within the cells, including nutritional and energy source, as well as one of the precursors for the synthesis of natural antioxidant glutathione (GSH). We hypothesized that one of the mechanisms responsible for ER-independent anti-neoplastic properties of SERMs and also for their adverse side effects could be dependent on the inhibition of Gln uptake.
  
  
  METHODS
  Human ER-negative MDA-MB231 breast cancer cells were treated with different doses of Tam and Ral. Gln uptake was monitored by using [(3)H]Gln assay. The effect of Tam and Ral on Gln transporter ASCT2 expression, glutathione (GSH) levels and cellular proliferation was determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Tam and Ral inhibited Gln uptake in a dose-dependent manner through inhibition of ASCT2 Gln transporter. This effect of the anti-estrogens was associated with inhibition of GSH production and apoptosis. Treatment of cells with N-acetyl L-cysteine and 17 beta-estradiol 2 reversed the effects of Ral and Tam.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results indicate that one of the mechanisms of action (and possibly some of the side effects) of TAM and RAL is associated with inhibition of cellular Gln uptake, oxidative stress and induction of apoptosis.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery/Breast Surgical Oncology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301W. Markham St., Mail Slot 725, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA. todorovavalentinak@uams.edu
authors.forename: Valentina K
authors.initials: VK
authors.lastname: Todorova
authors.forename: Yihong
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Kaufmann
authors.forename: Shaoke
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Luo
authors.forename: V Suzanne
authors.initials: VS
authors.lastname: Klimberg
mesh_terms: D000111:Acetylcysteine / Q000494:pharmacology; D026962:Amino Acid Transport System ASC / Q000378:metabolism; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000494:pharmacology; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D001692:Biological Transport / Q000187:drug effects*; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000378:metabolism; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D049109:Cell Proliferation / Q000187:drug effects*; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D053938:DNA Fragmentation / Q000187:drug effects; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004958:Estradiol / Q000494:pharmacology; D005260:Female; D015870:Gene Expression / Q000187:drug effects; D005973:Glutamine / Q000378:metabolism*; D005978:Glutathione / Q000096:biosynthesis; D006801:Humans; D015778:Minor Histocompatibility Antigens; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects; D020849:Raloxifene Hydrochloride / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011960:Receptors, Estrogen / Q000378:metabolism*; D013629:Tamoxifen / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D026962:Amino Acid Transport System ASC; D000975:Antioxidants; D015778:Minor Histocompatibility Antigens; D011960:Receptors, Estrogen; C420506:SLC1A5 protein, human; D013629:Tamoxifen; D005973:Glutamine; D020849:Raloxifene Hydrochloride; D004958:Estradiol; D005978:Glutathione; D000111:Acetylcysteine