title: Role of cytokines as mediators and regulators of microglial activity in inflammatory demyelination of the CNS.
abstract: As the resident innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), microglia fulfil a critical role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and in directing and eliciting molecular responses to CNS damage. The human disease Multiple Sclerosis and animal models of inflammatory demyelination are characterized by a complex interplay between degenerative and regenerative processes, many of which are regulated and mediated by microglia. Cellular communication between microglia and other neural and immune cells is controlled to a large extent by the activity of cytokines. Here we review the role of cytokines as mediators and regulators of microglial activity in inflammatory demyelination, highlighting their importance in potentiating cell damage, promoting neuroprotection and enhancing cellular repair in a context-dependent manner.
authors.affiliation: Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia. t.merson@florey.edu.au
authors.forename: Tobias D
authors.initials: TD
authors.lastname: Merson
authors.forename: Michele D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Binder
authors.forename: Trevor J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Kilpatrick
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents / Q000276:immunology; D002493:Central Nervous System Diseases / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D016207:Cytokines / Q000276:immunology / Q000502:physiology*; D020278:Demyelinating Autoimmune Diseases, CNS / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D006801:Humans; D007249:Inflammation / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D017628:Microglia / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents; D016207:Cytokines
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1996 Oct 1;184(4):1513-8
references.pmid: 8879222
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Aug;84(16):5788-92
references.pmid: 2886992
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 Aug 1;183(3):2079-88
references.pmid: 19597000
references.citation: Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2007 Apr;7(4):535-42
references.pmid: 17373904
references.citation: J Cell Sci. 1972 Mar;10(2):535-46
references.pmid: 5018033
references.citation: Glia. 2007 Oct;55(13):1385-96
references.pmid: 17661345
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1994 Nov 1;180(5):1587-90
references.pmid: 7964446
references.citation: Neurobiol Aging. 2007 Jun;28(6):894-906
references.pmid: 21887889
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 May 15;160(10):4822-30
references.pmid: 9590229
references.citation: J Immunol. 1986 May 1;136(9):3239-45
references.pmid: 3082983
references.citation: Nature. 2006 May 11;441(7090):235-8
references.pmid: 16648838
references.citation: J Immunol. 1999 Oct 15;163(8):4182-91
references.pmid: 10510354
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2000 Nov;16(5):542-56
references.pmid: 11083917
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1997 Jun 16;185(12):2177-82
references.pmid: 9182689
references.citation: Brain. 1997 Mar;120 ( Pt 3):393-9
references.pmid: 9126051
references.citation: Science. 1985 Apr 26;228(4698):497-9
references.pmid: 3872478
references.citation: Nature. 1995 Sep 28;377(6547):348-51
references.pmid: 7566090
references.citation: J Leukoc Biol. 1996 Oct;60(4):502-8
references.pmid: 8864135
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2008 May 23;370(1):129-33
references.pmid: 18358830
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2000 Nov 10;294(1):45-8
references.pmid: 11044583
references.citation: Science. 2003 Aug 1;301(5633):640-3
references.pmid: 12855817
references.citation: Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 1982 Sep-Oct;8(5):365-75
references.pmid: 7177337
references.citation: Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 1998 Sep-Dec;9(3-4):259-75
references.pmid: 9918124
references.citation: Lancet. 1987 Apr 18;1(8538):893-5
references.pmid: 2882294
references.citation: J Neurovirol. 2002 Apr;8(2):76-85
references.pmid: 11935460
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 1991 Jul;104(1):81-7
references.pmid: 1717664
references.citation: Clin Exp Immunol. 1998 Jul;113(1):96-9
references.pmid: 9697990
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1991 Nov;34(2-3):159-64
references.pmid: 1918322
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2008 May 14;28(20):5195-206
references.pmid: 18480276
references.citation: J Cell Biol. 1991 Jan;112(2):323-33
references.pmid: 1988464
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1992 Feb;36(2-3):157-69
references.pmid: 1732279
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 1973 Sep;20(1):63-72
references.pmid: 4744511
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1975 May;11(5):1147-55
references.pmid: 164412
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2000 Jan 3;102(1):56-66
references.pmid: 10626667
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 1996 Oct 1;98(7):1539-43
references.pmid: 8833901
references.citation: Mol Immunol. 2008 Feb;45(4):1191-6
references.pmid: 17697713
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Jul;14(7):4443-54
references.pmid: 8007951
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1991 Feb;31(2):147-53
references.pmid: 1991821
references.citation: Curr Med Chem. 2008;15(11):1105-15
references.pmid: 18473806
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2003 Feb;3(2):133-46
references.pmid: 12563297
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2006 Jan 4;26(1):328-32
references.pmid: 16399703
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2008 Feb;194(1-2):54-61
references.pmid: 18164424
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Jul 1;181(1):660-8
references.pmid: 18566433
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 May 1;172(9):5149-53
references.pmid: 15100250
references.citation: Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2006 Aug;6(4):379-86
references.pmid: 16713356
references.citation: Sci STKE. 2003 Feb 25;2003(171):re3
references.pmid: 12606705
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1988 Apr;23(4):339-46
references.pmid: 3132891
references.citation: Brain. 2007 Nov;130(Pt 11):2800-15
references.pmid: 17956913
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1999 Apr;29(4):1275-85
references.pmid: 10229095
references.citation: Neuroreport. 1996 Aug 12;7(12):1893-8
references.pmid: 8905687
references.citation: Brain. 2007 Feb;130(Pt 2):490-501
references.pmid: 17003070
references.citation: Neurology. 1990 Nov;40(11):1735-9
references.pmid: 2234430
references.citation: Cell Death Differ. 2003 Jan;10(1):45-65
references.pmid: 12655295
references.citation: Science. 2003 Feb 14;299(5609):1057-61
references.pmid: 12522256
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1989 Aug 1;170(2):607-12
references.pmid: 2754393
references.citation: Immunol Rev. 2008 Dec;226:205-18
references.pmid: 19161426
references.citation: Neurology. 2000 Nov 28;55(10):1497-505
references.pmid: 11094104
references.citation: Acta Neuropathol. 1978 May 24;42(2):105-13
references.pmid: 654883
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 1991 Aug;104(2):230-4
references.pmid: 1940977
references.citation: Curr Opin Neurol. 2008 Jun;21(3):278-83
references.pmid: 18451710
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Nov 1;169(9):4712-6
references.pmid: 12391178
references.citation: Curr Opin Neurol. 1999 Jun;12(3):295-302
references.pmid: 10499174
references.citation: Acta Neurol Scand. 1988 Oct;78(4):318-23
references.pmid: 3146861
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2004 Jun;187(2):254-65
references.pmid: 15144852
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1997 May 15;48(4):299-312
references.pmid: 9169856
references.citation: Brain. 2000 Feb;123 ( Pt 2):308-17
references.pmid: 10648438
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Aug 20;23(20):7710-8
references.pmid: 12930811
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1992 Feb;36(2-3):105-15
references.pmid: 1732276
references.citation: Neurochem Int. 1996 Jul;29(1):55-64
references.pmid: 8808789
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Dec 9;100(25):15047-52
references.pmid: 14657353
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Nov 1;179(9):5966-76
references.pmid: 17947670
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2008 Jul;173(1):119-29
references.pmid: 18535177
references.citation: Trends Immunol. 2007 Mar;28(3):138-45
references.pmid: 17276138
references.citation: Neuroreport. 1997 Dec 22;8(18):3851-6
references.pmid: 9462454
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1986 Jun 1;163(6):1433-50
references.pmid: 3486936
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1999 Dec;19(12):8075-82
references.pmid: 10567533
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1997 May;75(1-2):174-82
references.pmid: 9143252
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1997 Jan 20;185(2):329-39
references.pmid: 9016881
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2000 Jul 1;106(1-2):165-71
references.pmid: 10814794
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 2000 Dec 15;182(1):5-15
references.pmid: 11102634
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2006 Sep;178(1-2):30-9
references.pmid: 16814872
references.citation: Neurology. 1999 Aug 11;53(3):457-65
references.pmid: 10449104
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2006 Nov;99(4):1176-87
references.pmid: 17018025
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2002 Sep;130(1-2):32-45
references.pmid: 12225886
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 1998 Sep;153(3):801-13
references.pmid: 9736029
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Oct 3;27(40):10714-21
references.pmid: 17913905
references.citation: J Immunol. 1996 Dec 15;157(12):5721-31
references.pmid: 8955226
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2009 Apr;10(4):333-9
references.pmid: 19295629
references.citation: Adv Exp Med Biol. 2003;527:113-8
references.pmid: 15206723
references.citation: ScientificWorldJournal. 2008 Nov 02;8:1119-47
references.pmid: 18979053
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1995 Jan 1;181(1):381-6
references.pmid: 7528773
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2008 May 15;86(7):1538-47
references.pmid: 18214991
references.citation: Immunology. 2009 Jul;127(3):312-25
references.pmid: 19019087
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1996 Dec 6;271(49):31115-20
references.pmid: 8940108
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Dec 1;165(11):6235-43
references.pmid: 11086058
references.citation: Immunol Cell Biol. 2010 May-Jun;88(4):468-76
references.pmid: 20066002
references.citation: Brain. 1998 Dec;121 ( Pt 12):2221-8
references.pmid: 9874475
references.citation: Neurology. 1995 Jun;45(6 Suppl 6):S44-9
references.pmid: 7783912
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2002 Apr;3(4):392-8
references.pmid: 11896392
references.citation: Nature. 1992 Oct 22;359(6397):693-9
references.pmid: 1436033
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2008 Jul;86(9):1972-80
references.pmid: 18438913
references.citation: Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2007 Dec;8(12):970-82
references.pmid: 18000526
references.citation: Immunol Rev. 2004 Dec;202:8-32
references.pmid: 15546383
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 1999 May;154(5):1549-61
references.pmid: 10329607
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1998 Jan 29;338(5):278-85
references.pmid: 9445407
references.citation: Nature. 1993 Aug 26;364(6440):798-802
references.pmid: 8395024
references.citation: Glia. 2001 Jan;33(1):87-95
references.pmid: 11169794
references.citation: EMBO J. 1994 Feb 15;13(4):843-50
references.pmid: 7509279
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2009;27:119-45
references.pmid: 19302036
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2006 Oct 13;281(41):31119-30
references.pmid: 16912041
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2002 Jul 15;69(2):189-96
references.pmid: 12111800
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 2008 Nov 15;274(1-2):45-7
references.pmid: 18495163
references.citation: Science. 2002 May 31;296(5573):1634-5
references.pmid: 12040173
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2009 Nov;111(3):808-18
references.pmid: 19712053
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Mar 16;276(11):7899-905
references.pmid: 11110796
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Mar 1;164(5):2759-68
references.pmid: 10679118
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2001 Oct 1;194(7):873-82
references.pmid: 11581310
references.citation: J Cell Biol. 1990 Oct;111(4):1701-11
references.pmid: 2211833
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Dec 1;177(11):7761-71
references.pmid: 17114447
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1996 Feb 01;43(3):382-9
references.pmid: 8714527
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jan 1;89(1):421-5
references.pmid: 1370356
references.citation: Hum Gene Ther. 1998 Nov 20;9(17):2605-17
references.pmid: 9853527
references.citation: Nature. 1995 Oct 19;377(6550):591-4
references.pmid: 7566171
references.citation: Brain. 2006 Dec;129(Pt 12):3165-72
references.pmid: 16921173
references.citation: Brain. 2006 May;129(Pt 5):1306-18
references.pmid: 16504972
references.citation: Expert Rev Neurother. 2009 Mar;9(3):319-21
references.pmid: 19271940
references.citation: J Immunol. 2001 Feb 15;166(4):2260-9
references.pmid: 11160280
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2005 Jan 17;201(2):233-40
references.pmid: 15657292
references.citation: Glia. 2001 Sep;35(3):204-12
references.pmid: 11494411
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1994 Dec 30;205(3):1907-15
references.pmid: 7811281
references.citation: Immunol Cell Biol. 2009 Oct;87(7):534-45
references.pmid: 19488061
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Sep 15;181(6):3750-4
references.pmid: 18768826
references.citation: Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2001 Jun;280(6):L1273-81
references.pmid: 11350808
references.citation: J Immunol. 1995 Oct 15;155(8):4052-9
references.pmid: 7561116
references.citation: Nat Med. 2002 Dec;8(12):1363-8
references.pmid: 12457181
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1995 Dec 1;182(6):1985-96
references.pmid: 7500044
references.citation: Development. 1993 May;118(1):283-95
references.pmid: 8375338
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2006 Sep;7(9):929-36
references.pmid: 16906167
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2007 Jun 11;204(6):1335-47
references.pmid: 17548521
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2002 Sep;130(1-2):1-9
references.pmid: 12225883
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2004 Apr;55(4):458-68
references.pmid: 15048884
references.citation: J Immunol. 1993 Nov 1;151(9):4637-41
references.pmid: 8409424
references.citation: Immunity. 2008 Jul 18;29(1):68-78
references.pmid: 18619869
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 Feb;11(2):146-52
references.pmid: 15665833
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1998 Apr 15;52(2):230-9
references.pmid: 9579413
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1997 May 5;185(9):1711-4
references.pmid: 9151908
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Jan 1;178(1):39-48
references.pmid: 17182538
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Jul 1;105(26):9041-6
references.pmid: 18577591
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Aug 1;177(3):1679-88
references.pmid: 16849477
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Apr 1;88(7):2918-21
references.pmid: 2011600
references.citation: J Immunol. 1992 Oct 1;149(7):2496-505
references.pmid: 1527389
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1992 May;12(5):1668-78
references.pmid: 1578261
references.citation: FASEB J. 2003 Jul;17(10):1337-9
references.pmid: 12759332
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Mar 15;164(6):3207-13
references.pmid: 10706712
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2008 May;118(5):1680-90
references.pmid: 18382764
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 Dec 15;161(12):6480-6
references.pmid: 9862671
references.citation: Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2008 Dec;34(6):603-20
references.pmid: 18466224
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2000;18:423-49
references.pmid: 10837065
references.citation: Brain. 2006 Aug;129(Pt 8):1953-71
references.pmid: 16632554
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1993 Oct;48(1):13-21
references.pmid: 8227304
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2003 Apr;4(4):330-6
references.pmid: 12612578
references.citation: Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2007 Jun;33(3):277-87
references.pmid: 17442065
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1981 Aug;10(2):149-58
references.pmid: 7025748
references.citation: Immunol Cell Biol. 1999 Jun;77(3):216-23
references.pmid: 10361253
references.citation: Nat Med. 1997 Oct;3(10):1133-6
references.pmid: 9334726
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2004 Nov;165(5):1827-37
references.pmid: 15509551
references.citation: Trends Immunol. 2004 Jul;25(7):374-80
references.pmid: 15207505
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2009 Jan;119(1):61-9
references.pmid: 19075395
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1993 May;52(3):199-204
references.pmid: 7684075
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2002 Nov 8;332(3):185-9
references.pmid: 12399011
references.citation: Brain Pathol. 1996 Jul;6(3):259-74
references.pmid: 8864283
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2003 Oct 3;278(40):38105-8
references.pmid: 12893815
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2004 Apr;25(4):707-21
references.pmid: 15080898
references.citation: J Immunol. 1997 Sep 1;159(5):2452-61
references.pmid: 9278338
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 2000 Dec;23(12):618-25
references.pmid: 11137152
references.citation: J Immunol. 1997 Aug 15;159(4):1604-12
references.pmid: 9257819
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Dec 15;169(12):7104-10
references.pmid: 12471147
references.citation: Trends Immunol. 2005 Nov;26(11):565-71
references.pmid: 16153891
references.citation: Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 2000 Apr 14;77(1):138-47
references.pmid: 10814840
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1989 Oct;24(3):249-58
references.pmid: 2808692
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Nov 30;276(48):44527-33
references.pmid: 11551948
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Jun 15;172(12):7510-8
references.pmid: 15187130
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Nov 1;175(9):5875-84
references.pmid: 16237080
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1991 Apr;32(1):67-74
references.pmid: 2002092
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1995 Jan;37(1):82-8
references.pmid: 7818262
references.citation: Nature. 2003 Feb 13;421(6924):744-8
references.pmid: 12610626
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2009 Jul;175(1):283-93
references.pmid: 19541935
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Nov 7;97(23):12700-4
references.pmid: 11050183
references.citation: Brain. 1999 Dec;122 ( Pt 12):2279-95
references.pmid: 10581222
references.citation: Glia. 2006 May;53(7):696-703
references.pmid: 16498619
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1994 Nov 1;180(5):1961-6
references.pmid: 7525845
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2006 Sep;7(9):937-45
references.pmid: 16906166
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1994 Aug;53(1):101-7
references.pmid: 8051292
references.citation: Cell Signal. 2001 Feb;13(2):85-94
references.pmid: 11257452
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2008 Aug;31(2):209-17
references.pmid: 18539470
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2007 Mar 19;204(3):571-82
references.pmid: 17339406
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Sep 15;177(6):3542-53
references.pmid: 16951313
references.citation: Cell. 1994 Mar 11;76(5):803-10
references.pmid: 8124717
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1998 May 1;85(1):1-10
references.pmid: 9626992
references.citation: Immunol Rev. 2004 Dec;202:96-105
references.pmid: 15546388
references.citation: Neurochem Res. 2007 Feb;32(2):279-92
references.pmid: 17063394
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:307-36
references.pmid: 15771573
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008 Nov;9(11):839-55
references.pmid: 18931697
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Oct 1;175(7):4761-8
references.pmid: 16177124
references.citation: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;265:23-48
references.pmid: 12014193
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2006 Aug 7;203(8):1891-901
references.pmid: 16831897
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2003 Jan 17;278(3):1910-4
references.pmid: 12417590
references.citation: Nature. 1996 Oct 31;383(6603):787-93
references.pmid: 8893001
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:683-747
references.pmid: 15771584
references.citation: PLoS Med. 2007 Apr;4(4):e124
references.pmid: 17425404
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2002 Sep 1;69(5):597-606
references.pmid: 12210825
references.citation: J Immunol. 1993 Aug 15;151(4):2150-8
references.pmid: 8345199
references.citation: J Neurovirol. 2002 Dec;8(6):496-512
references.pmid: 12476345
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2005 Mar;35(3):727-37
references.pmid: 15724248
references.citation: Nature. 2006 May 11;441(7090):231-4
references.pmid: 16648837
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2000 Oct;16(4):338-49
references.pmid: 11085872
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2006 Mar;83(4):594-605
references.pmid: 16429447
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Sep 1;169(5):2264-73
references.pmid: 12193691
references.citation: Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2008 Sep;8(9):1435-47
references.pmid: 18694361
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2001 Jul 1;65(1):38-44
references.pmid: 11433427
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 Oct 1;161(7):3299-306
references.pmid: 9759845
references.citation: Immunity. 1997 Dec;7(6):837-47
references.pmid: 9430229
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1993 Aug;47(1):1-7
references.pmid: 7690769
references.citation: J Immunol. 1990 May 15;144(10):3816-21
references.pmid: 1692062
references.citation: Trends Cell Biol. 1995 Oct;5(10):392-9
references.pmid: 14732063
references.citation: J Immunol. 1995 Nov 1;155(9):4497-503
references.pmid: 7594613
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2008 Jun;20(3):265-71
references.pmid: 18502111
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2002 Jun 1;68(5):579-87
references.pmid: 12111847
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Nov 21;92(24):11066-70
references.pmid: 7479938
references.citation: Int Immunol. 1998 May;10(5):703-8
references.pmid: 9645618
references.citation: Glia. 2005 Jul;51(1):73-9
references.pmid: 15779090
references.citation: Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2001 May;2(5):378-86
references.pmid: 11331912
references.citation: Trends Cell Biol. 2000 Dec;10(12):542-50
references.pmid: 11121747
references.citation: Brain Res. 2008 Nov 13;1240:1-11
references.pmid: 18804096
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Feb 15;178(4):2589-98
references.pmid: 17277169
references.citation: Immunol Rev. 2005 Aug;206:232-59
references.pmid: 16048553
references.citation: Glia. 2000 Jan 1;29(1):102
references.pmid: 10594929
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2001 Sep;108(5):739-47
references.pmid: 11544280
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1999 Feb;58(2):174-87
references.pmid: 10029100
references.citation: J Immunol. 1991 May 1;146(9):3012-7
references.pmid: 1707929
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Apr 1;176(7):3900-4
references.pmid: 16547222
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Oct;13(10):6231-40
references.pmid: 8413223
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2000 Dec;48(6):893-901
references.pmid: 11117546
references.citation: Nat Med. 2002 Oct;8(10):1115-21
references.pmid: 12357247
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2004 Jan;146(1-2):209-15
references.pmid: 14698865
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1995 Nov;25(11):3035-40
references.pmid: 7489740
references.citation: Immunology. 1993 May;79(1):125-30
references.pmid: 8509133
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1993 Jun;45(1-2):193-201
references.pmid: 8331161
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 Nov 1;161(9):5097-104
references.pmid: 9794448
references.citation: Clin Immunol. 2000 May;95(2):117-23
references.pmid: 10779405
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2009 Aug 14;386(1):105-10
references.pmid: 19501566
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2004 Oct;37(4):881-7
references.pmid: 15380678
references.citation: Brain. 2002 Feb;125(Pt 2):338-49
references.pmid: 11844734
references.citation: J Neurol. 1996 Feb;243(2):165-70
references.pmid: 8750556
references.citation: J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2008 Jun;3(2):130-40
references.pmid: 18247125
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 2005 May 15;232(1-2):3-9
references.pmid: 15850576
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1999 Nov 15;101(2):188-96
references.pmid: 10580801
references.citation: Mult Scler. 1997 Apr;3(2):133-6
references.pmid: 9291167
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2000 Feb;12(2):457-66
references.pmid: 10712626
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Jul 1;181(1):126-35
references.pmid: 18566377
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Jan;17(1):174-207
references.pmid: 14726460
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Oct 15;90(20):9730-4
references.pmid: 7692452
references.citation: J Leukoc Biol. 1998 Jun;63(6):650-7
references.pmid: 9620655
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2003 Nov;4(11):1144-50
references.pmid: 14556004
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Apr 1;164(7):3563-72
references.pmid: 10725711
references.citation: Mol Med. 1995 Nov;1(7):795-805
references.pmid: 8612202
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Jan 1;168(1):427-33
references.pmid: 11751989
references.citation: Cell. 2007 Dec 14;131(6):1124-36
references.pmid: 18083102
references.citation: Nature. 1986 Nov 20-26;324(6094):266-8
references.pmid: 2946959
references.citation: Immunity. 2009 May;30(5):616-25
references.pmid: 19464984
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2007 Nov;117(11):3306-15
references.pmid: 17965773
references.citation: Acta Neuropathol. 2007 Dec;114(6):587-96
references.pmid: 17940777
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Nov;7(11):904-12
references.pmid: 17917672
references.citation: J Immunol. 1995 Jul 1;155(1):325-32
references.pmid: 7602108
references.citation: J Immunol. 1993 Jul 15;151(2):1116-27
references.pmid: 8335893
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1993 Apr 1;177(4):1199-204
references.pmid: 8096238
references.citation: Cell. 1993 May 7;73(3):457-67
references.pmid: 8387893
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 May 27;105(21):7534-9
references.pmid: 18490655
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2008 Jul 7;205(7):1535-41
references.pmid: 18573909
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2006 May;168(5):1464-73
references.pmid: 16651614
references.citation: J Immunol. 1991 May 1;146(9):3074-81
references.pmid: 1673147
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1995 Feb;131(2):221-8
references.pmid: 7534720
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2005 Jun-Jul;19(1-2):229-36
references.pmid: 15837578
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2000 Jun;47(6):707-17
references.pmid: 10852536
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2004 Apr;46(5):734-42
references.pmid: 14996551
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1999 Sep 1;99(1):131-41
references.pmid: 10496186
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2001;19:683-765
references.pmid: 11244051
references.citation: Brain Res. 2005 Apr 8;1040(1-2):202-7
references.pmid: 15804443
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1995 Nov;38(5):788-96
references.pmid: 7486871
references.citation: FASEB J. 2006 May;20(7):985-7
references.pmid: 16571771
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1993 Feb;33(2):137-51
references.pmid: 8434875
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1998 May;57(5):385-95
references.pmid: 9596409
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Apr 26;446(7139):1091-5
references.pmid: 17410128
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1996 Jul;26(7):1641-6
references.pmid: 8766573
references.citation: Neurology. 1998 Jul;51(1):289-92
references.pmid: 9674825
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1997 Dec;80(1-2):65-75
references.pmid: 9413260
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Oct 29;23(30):9824-32
references.pmid: 14586011
references.citation: Neurology. 1996 Dec;47(6):1531-4
references.pmid: 8960740
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2002 Jan;2(1):37-45
references.pmid: 11905836
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2009 May-Jun;56(6-7):929-36
references.pmid: 19285095
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 1998 Nov;12(4-5):220-7
references.pmid: 9828087
references.citation: J Cell Biochem. 1997 Sep 15;66(4):532-41
references.pmid: 9282331
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Sep 15;21(18):7046-52
references.pmid: 11549714
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1998 Oct 1;54(1):68-78
references.pmid: 9778151
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 Aug 1;183(3):2045-58
references.pmid: 19587012
references.citation: Nat Med. 2002 Jun;8(6):613-9
references.pmid: 12042813
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1996 Dec 1;184(6):2361-70
references.pmid: 8976190
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2002 Jul 15;22(14):6071-82
references.pmid: 12122068
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Oct 15;175(8):5077-86
references.pmid: 16210611
references.citation: Int Immunol. 2002 Oct;14(10):1225-31
references.pmid: 12356687
references.citation: EMBO J. 1991 Oct;10(10):2821-32
references.pmid: 1833184
references.citation: Science. 1994 Aug 26;265(5176):1237-40
references.pmid: 7520605
references.citation: Oncogene. 1999 Nov 1;18(45):6087-93
references.pmid: 10557099
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 1999;17:331-67
references.pmid: 10358762
references.citation: Glia. 2000 Feb 15;29(4):293-304
references.pmid: 10652440
references.citation: Annu Rev Neurosci. 2007;30:153-79
references.pmid: 17506644
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1996 Jan;64(1):63-9
references.pmid: 8598391
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1990 Oct 1;172(4):1193-200
references.pmid: 2212948
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1998 Dec 1;54(5):574-83
references.pmid: 9843148
references.citation: Sci STKE. 2004 Nov 23;2004(260):tr8
references.pmid: 15561980
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2009 Apr;216(2):306-11
references.pmid: 19121307
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Nov 15;450(7168):435-9
references.pmid: 17960135
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Jun 1;168(11):5699-708
references.pmid: 12023369
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 1999 Aug;14(2):153-68
references.pmid: 10532806
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1999 Mar 1;95(1-2):8-18
references.pmid: 10229111
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2008 Nov 15;204(1-2):52-7
references.pmid: 18771807
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 1997 Feb 27;146(1):59-65
references.pmid: 9077497
references.citation: Nat Med. 1998 Jan;4(1):78-83
references.pmid: 9427610
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 Sep;11(9):966-72
references.pmid: 16086023
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Jan 1;178(1):179-85
references.pmid: 17182553
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 1998 Apr;152(4):975-82
references.pmid: 9546358
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2007 May;37(5):1290-301
references.pmid: 17407101
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1994 Apr;51(1):77-83
references.pmid: 7512580
references.citation: Immunity. 2008 May;28(5):675-86
references.pmid: 18424188
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1998 Feb 16;187(4):537-46
references.pmid: 9463404
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2008 May;25(5):411-26
references.pmid: 18435595
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2002 Jun;61(6):539-46
references.pmid: 12071637
references.citation: Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2008 Oct-Dec;19(5-6):383-94
references.pmid: 18929502
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1991 Nov;30(5):694-700
references.pmid: 1722388
references.citation: Neuroscientist. 2006 Aug;12(4):305-16
references.pmid: 16840707
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 Sep 1;183(5):3004-13
references.pmid: 19657094
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 Mar;11(3):335-9
references.pmid: 15735651
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2003 Jul 3;344(3):185-8
references.pmid: 12812836
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jul 12;102(28):9936-41
references.pmid: 15998743
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1993 Aug;23(8):1762-70
references.pmid: 8102100
references.citation: Brain. 2008 Jun;131(Pt 6):1464-77
references.pmid: 18490361
references.citation: Dev Neurosci. 1991;13(3):130-7
references.pmid: 1752215
references.citation: Science. 1993 Jan 29;259(5095):689-92
references.pmid: 8430320
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 Oct 15;161(8):4437-46
references.pmid: 9780223
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Oct 13;95(21):12516-21
references.pmid: 9770517
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Aug 10;276(32):30142-9
references.pmid: 11387343
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 1989;7:145-73
references.pmid: 2523712
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2005 Feb;18(1):166-75
references.pmid: 15649707
references.citation: Curr Med Chem. 2007;14(11):1189-97
references.pmid: 17504139
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 May 1;182(9):5331-41
references.pmid: 19380780
references.citation: Lab Invest. 1975 Dec;33(6):626-37
references.pmid: 1202282
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2002 Jul;20(3):489-502
references.pmid: 12139924
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Oct 17;27(42):11201-13
references.pmid: 17942715
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2003 Jul;86(2):519-28
references.pmid: 12871593
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1996 Jan;64(1):91-100
references.pmid: 8598395
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2006 Nov;7(11):1151-6
references.pmid: 16998492
references.citation: Biochem Pharmacol. 2007 Jun 1;73(11):1796-806
references.pmid: 17379190
references.citation: Neurology. 1998 Sep;51(3):753-8
references.pmid: 9748022
references.citation: Neurology. 1993 Apr;43(4):662-7
references.pmid: 8469319
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2000 Jun 30;287(3):171-4
references.pmid: 10863022
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Sep 15;173(6):3871-7
references.pmid: 15356135
references.citation: Int Immunol. 2008 Feb;20(2):223-34
references.pmid: 18156621
references.citation: Neurology. 2007 Jun 12;68(24 Suppl 4):S8-11
references.pmid: 17562848
references.citation: Cytokine. 2001 Apr 21;14(2):88-96
references.pmid: 11356009
references.citation: Mol Immunol. 2009 Feb;46(5):773-83
references.pmid: 19100623
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1985 Aug 1;162(2):501-15
references.pmid: 3160805
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2006 May 24;26(21):5638-48
references.pmid: 16723520
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1997 Nov 1;50(3):466-76
references.pmid: 9364332
references.citation: Glia. 2009 Nov 1;57(14):1553-65
references.pmid: 19306359
references.citation: J Immunol. 2003 May 1;170(9):4776-84
references.pmid: 12707359
references.citation: Lancet Neurol. 2008 Sep;7(9):796-804
references.pmid: 18703004
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 May 16;103(20):7859-64
references.pmid: 16682639
references.citation: J Immunol. 2003 May 15;170(10):4886-90
references.pmid: 12734330
references.citation: Lab Invest. 1989 Nov;61(5):489-503
references.pmid: 2811298
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1997 Nov 21;272(47):29411-4
references.pmid: 9367994
references.citation: J Immunol. 1993 Feb 15;150(4):1517-23
references.pmid: 8432992
references.citation: Nature. 1993 Jan 21;361(6409):266-9
references.pmid: 8380906
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2002 Feb;51(2):215-23
references.pmid: 11835378
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Dec 1;169(11):6554-63
references.pmid: 12444167
references.citation: Immunol Today. 2000 Mar;21(3):141-7
references.pmid: 10689302
references.citation: Neurochem Res. 1999 Feb;24(2):331-8
references.pmid: 9972883
references.citation: J Immunol. 1993 Aug 1;151(3):1473-81
references.pmid: 8335941
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2002 Jan;173(1):46-62
references.pmid: 11771938
references.citation: Neurochem Res. 1999 Feb;24(2):261-8
references.pmid: 9972873
references.citation: Curr Mol Med. 2009 Apr;9(3):365-74
references.pmid: 19355917
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2006 Sep;116(9):2434-41
references.pmid: 16906223
references.citation: Glia. 2006 Sep;54(4):297-303
references.pmid: 16856149
references.citation: FASEB J. 2005 Aug;19(10):1347-9
references.pmid: 15939737
references.citation: Brain. 2005 Mar;128(Pt 3):528-39
references.pmid: 15699059
references.citation: Glia. 2000 Apr;30(2):134-42
references.pmid: 10719355
references.citation: Science. 2005 Nov 4;310(5749):850-5
references.pmid: 16272121
references.citation: Biol Pharm Bull. 2002 Aug;25(8):945-53
references.pmid: 12186424
references.citation: J Immunol. 1996 Jan 1;156(1):5-7
references.pmid: 8598493
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2006 Aug;177(1-2):173-80
references.pmid: 16753226
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 May 15;23(10):4208-18
references.pmid: 12764109
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Nov 1;165(9):5304-14
references.pmid: 11046065
references.citation: Brain. 2009 Feb;132(Pt 2):288-95
references.pmid: 18567623
references.citation: Glia. 2005 May;50(3):235-46
references.pmid: 15739188
references.citation: Brain Behav Immun. 2010 Feb;24(2):201-9
references.pmid: 19577630
references.citation: Virus Res. 2005 Aug;111(2):214-23
references.pmid: 15893838
references.citation: Glia. 2008 Apr 15;56(6):686-98
references.pmid: 18293407
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1994 May;51(2):135-46
references.pmid: 8182113
references.citation: J Neurovirol. 2003 Apr;9(2):148-64
references.pmid: 12707846
references.citation: Cell. 1994 Mar 11;76(5):793-802
references.pmid: 8124716
references.citation: Immunol Res. 2005;31(1):1-12
references.pmid: 15591618
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1995 Sep;61(2):205-12
references.pmid: 7593556
references.citation: J Immunol. 1991 Jul 15;147(2):609-12
references.pmid: 2071897
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2002 Sep;61(9):760-6
references.pmid: 12230322
references.citation: Mult Scler. 2006 Apr;12(2):121-32
references.pmid: 16629415
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2001 Nov;4(11):1116-22
references.pmid: 11600888
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Nov;81(21):11690-702
references.pmid: 17715222
references.citation: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2005 Apr;48(2):185-95
references.pmid: 15850657
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2007 Mar 7;27(10):2596-605
references.pmid: 17344397
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Sep 1;169(5):2354-60
references.pmid: 12193701
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2006;24:99-146
references.pmid: 16551245
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2006 Jan;31(1):149-60
references.pmid: 16297637
references.citation: Gene Ther. 2008 Apr;15(7):504-15
references.pmid: 18239607
references.citation: Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2006 Jun;17(3):173-88
references.pmid: 16540365
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1996 Jan;64(1):55-61
references.pmid: 8598390
references.citation: Glia. 2003 Sep;43(3):231-42
references.pmid: 12898702
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2007 Oct;190(1-2):53-60
references.pmid: 17868907
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2003 Oct;112(8):1186-91
references.pmid: 14561703
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2005 Jul;5(7):521-31
references.pmid: 15999093
references.citation: J Autoimmun. 1993 Jun;6(3):311-22
references.pmid: 7691064
references.citation: Brain Behav Immun. 2008 Feb;22(2):140-7
references.pmid: 17920811
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2009 Aug 3;206(8):1653-60
references.pmid: 19596803
references.citation: Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2005 Jun;28(3):205-20
references.pmid: 16129905
references.citation: J Immunol. 1991 Sep 15;147(6):1792-6
references.pmid: 1716279
references.citation: Glia. 2001 Nov;36(2):165-79
references.pmid: 11596125
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1992 Mar;37(1-2):161-6
references.pmid: 1372327
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2002 Oct;16(7):1175-85
references.pmid: 12405978
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2005 Aug;5(8):629-40
references.pmid: 16034365
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1995 Jun 9;270(23):13757-65
references.pmid: 7775431
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 Apr 15;182(8):5013-23
references.pmid: 19342681
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1995 Feb 1;181(2):607-17
references.pmid: 7836916
references.citation: J Cell Biol. 2004 Jan 5;164(1):111-22
references.pmid: 14709544