title: Contemporary epidemiology of renal cell carcinoma: perspectives  of primary prevention.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Epidemiological research of recent years has produced evidence for a role of lifestyle-associated risk factors in the etiology of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), the most common renal tumor. In this review, we give an overview of recent trends in incidence and mortality and summarize the current knowledge on risk factors of RCC.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data on incidence and mortality in the literature were reviewed. Global incidence data were derived from the Globocan database. A literature review of epidemiological studies on risk factors of kidney cancer was performed, with special emphasis on recent studies with high level of evidence, i.e., meta-analyses and prospective cohort studies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The incidence of renal malignancies has increased over recent decades in the context of the more widespread use of diagnostic imaging. However, time trends and geographic variations in incidence and mortality may also relate to changes in the prevalence of risk factors. Cigarette smoking, excess body weight and uncontrolled blood pressure are the most important and modifiable risk factors for RCC with a high prevalence in the general population. Moreover, dietary habits associated with a Western lifestyle were proposed as potential risk factors, but no food or food group has consistently been related to RCC risk.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on the current evidence, reductions in the prevalence of cigarette smoking, overweight and hypertension are preventive strategies for RCC. More research is needed to establish the underlying mechanisms linking these risk factors and renal carcinogenesis.
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany. steffen.weikert@charite.de
authors.forename: Steffen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Weikert
authors.forename: Börje
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Ljungberg
mesh_terms: D002292:Carcinoma, Renal Cell / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000628:therapy; D015897:Comorbidity; D005260:Female; D014943:Global Health; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D007680:Kidney Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000628:therapy; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D009765:Obesity / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D015995:Prevalence; D011322:Primary Prevention / Q000379:methods*; D011379:Prognosis; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000453:epidemiology; D016019:Survival Analysis
references.citation: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Jun;18(6):1730-9
references.pmid: 19505906
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Sep 15;4(9):e7013
references.pmid: 19753122
references.citation: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007 May 16;99(10):801-10
references.pmid: 17505075
references.citation: Eur J Cancer Prev. 2002 Apr;11(2):171-8
references.pmid: 11984136
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Oct 15;166(8):932-40
references.pmid: 17656615
references.citation: Kidney Int. 2002 Jun;61(6):2201-9
references.pmid: 12028461
references.citation: JAMA. 2006 Sep 20;296(11):1371-6
references.pmid: 16985229
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2000 Nov 2;343(18):1305-11
references.pmid: 11058675
references.citation: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006 Sep 20;98(18):1331-4
references.pmid: 16985252
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 1999 Mar 15;149(6):521-30
references.pmid: 10084241
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Feb 15;167(4):438-46
references.pmid: 18048375
references.citation: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Dec 3;100(23):1695-706
references.pmid: 19033572
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Oct 1;166(7):752-9
references.pmid: 17615089
references.citation: Cancer Causes Control. 2007 Mar;18(2):125-33
references.pmid: 17242980
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2005 Mar 10;114(1):101-8
references.pmid: 15523697
references.citation: Eur J Cancer. 2005 Mar;41(5):770-8
references.pmid: 15763654
references.citation: Cancer J. 2008 Sep-Oct;14(5):288-301
references.pmid: 18836333
references.citation: Br J Cancer. 2005 Apr 11;92(7):1302-6
references.pmid: 15812478
references.citation: Cancer Causes Control. 2005 Nov;16(9):1099-106
references.pmid: 16184476
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2002 Aug 1;100(4):476-9
references.pmid: 12115533
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Aug 1;168(3):268-77
references.pmid: 18544571
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2004 Sep 15;10(18 Pt 2):6282S-9S
references.pmid: 15448018
references.citation: Lancet. 2008 Feb 16;371(9612):569-78
references.pmid: 18280327
references.citation: BJU Int. 2008 Apr;101(8):949-58
references.pmid: 18241251
references.citation: Environ Health Perspect. 2004 Nov;112(15):1447-59
references.pmid: 15531427
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2007 Feb 15;120(4):892-6
references.pmid: 17131347
references.citation: Ann Oncol. 2004 Jul;15(7):1130-5
references.pmid: 15205209
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2006 Feb 1;118(3):728-38
references.pmid: 16094628
references.citation: Eur Urol. 2008 Jul;54(1):133-40
references.pmid: 18160207
references.citation: Diabetologia. 1999 Jan;42(1):107-12
references.pmid: 10027588
references.citation: Br J Cancer. 2007 Jul 2;97(1):112-4
references.pmid: 17519895
references.citation: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Mar;18(3):801-7
references.pmid: 19240244
references.citation: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001 Sep;10(9):1001-4
references.pmid: 11535554
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2009 Aug 15;125(4):982-7
references.pmid: 19415751
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jan;89(1):347-53
references.pmid: 19056579
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Sep 1;148(5):424-30
references.pmid: 9737554
references.citation: BMC Cancer. 2008 Dec 24;8:387
references.pmid: 19108730
references.citation: Cancer Causes Control. 2009 Oct;20(8):1451-8
references.pmid: 19533394