title: Ketamine activates cell cycle signaling and apoptosis in the neonatal rat brain.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Prolonged exposure to ketamine results in accelerated neurodegeneration and neurocognitive deficits in the neonatal rats. Experimental models of neurodegeneration have implicated reentry of postmitotic neurons into the cell cycle, leading to cell death. The authors hypothesize that the ketamine-induced neuroapoptosis is partially due to aberrant cycle cell reentry. To explore this hypothesis, the authors characterized the effect of ketamine on the cell cycle signaling pathway in the developing rodent brain in vivo and in vitro.
  
  
  METHODS
  Postnatal day 7 rat pups and primary neurons were used for the experiments. Each rat pup received five intraperitoneal doses of either saline or ketamine (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg/dose) at 90-min intervals over 6 h. Primary neurons were exposed to varying concentrations of ketamine to determine the dose and duration effects. The expression of cell cycle proteins (cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, and E2F1), Bcl2-interacting mediator of cell death (Bim), and activated caspase-3 was determined. The effect of cyclin D1 knockdown by small interfering RNA was also examined in primary neurons incubated in ketamine.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Ketamine mediated a dose- and time-dependent increase in expression of cell cycle proteins and activated caspase-3. Cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, E2F1, Bim, and cleaved caspase-3 expression increased at 12 h and peaked at 24 h in vitro. Knockdown of cyclin D1 by small interfering RNA attenuated Bim and cleaved caspase-3 expression.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings support a model in which ketamine induces aberrant cell cycle reentry, leading to apoptotic cell death in the developing rat brain.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA. sulpicio.soriano@childrens.harvard.edu
authors.forename: Sulpicio G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Soriano
authors.forename: Qian
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.forename: Jing
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Jia-Ren
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.forename: Xiao Hui
authors.initials: XH
authors.lastname: Han
authors.forename: Jennifer L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Kanter
authors.forename: Dusica
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Bajic
authors.forename: Juan C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Ibla
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000831:Animals, Newborn; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology; D001921:Brain / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology; D002453:Cell Cycle / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology; D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D007649:Ketamine / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins; D007649:Ketamine