title: Study of encapsulated 170Tm sources for their potential use in brachytherapy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  High dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy is currently performed with 192Ir sources, and 60Co has returned recently into clinical use as a source for this kind of cancer treatment. Both radionuclides have mean photon energies high enough to require specific shielded treatment rooms. In recent years, 169Yb has been explored as an alternative for HDR-brachytherapy implants. Although it has mean photon energy lower than 192Ir, it still requires extensive shielding to deliver treatment. An alternative radionuclide for brachytherapy is 170Tm (Z=69) because it has three physical properties adequate for clinical practice: (a) 128.6 day half-life, (b) high specific activity, and (c) mean photon energy of 66.39 keV. The main drawback of this radionuclide is the low photon yield (six photons per 100 electrons emitted). The purpose of this work is to study the dosimetric characteristics of this radionuclide for potential use in HDR-brachytherapy.
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors have assumed a theoretical 170Tm cylindrical source encapsulated with stainless steel and typical dimensions taken from the currently available HDR 192Ir brachytherapy sources. The dose-rate distribution was calculated for this source using the GEANT4 Monte Carlo (MC) code considering both photon and electron 170Tm spectra. The AAPM TG-43 U1 brachytherapy dosimetry parameters were derived. To study general properties of 170Tm encapsulated sources, spherical sources encapsulated with stainless steel and platinum were also studied. Moreover, the influence of small variations in the active core and capsule dimensions on the dosimetric characteristics was assessed. Treatment times required for a 170Tm source were compared to those for 192Ir and 169Yb for the same contained activity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Due to the energetic beta spectrum and the large electron yield, the bremsstrahlung contribution to the dose was of the same order of magnitude as from the emitted gammas and characteristic x rays. Moreover, the electron spectrum contribution to the dose was significant up to 4 mm from the source center compared to the photon contribution. The dose-rate constant lamda of the cylindrical source was 1.23 cGy h(-1) U(-1). The behavior of the radial dose function showed promise for applications in brachytherapy. Due to the electron spectrum, the anisotropy was large for r <6 mm. Variations in manufacturing tolerances did not significantly influence the final dosimetry data when expressed in cGy h(-1) U(-1). For typical capsule dimensions, maximum reference dose rates of about 0.2, 10, and 2 Gy min(-1) would then be obtained for 170Tm, 192Ir, and 169Yb, respectively, resulting in treatment times greater than those for HDR 192Ir brachytherapy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The dosimetric characteristics of source designs exploiting the low photon energy of 170Tm were studied for potential application in HDR-brachytherapy. Dose-rate distributions were obtained for cylindrical and simplified spherical 170Tm source designs (stainless steel and platinum capsule materials) using MC calculations. Despite the high activity of 170Tm, calculated treatment times were much longer than for 192Ir.
authors.affiliation: Department of Atomic, Molecular and Nuclear Physics, University of Valencia, E-46100 Burjassot, Spain. fballest@uv.es
authors.forename: Facundo
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Ballester
authors.forename: Domingo
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Granero
authors.forename: Jose
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Perez-Calatayud
authors.forename: Jack L M
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Venselaar
authors.forename: Mark J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Rivard
mesh_terms: D001918:Brachytherapy / Q000379:methods*; D004583:Electrons; D006801:Humans; D007496:Iridium Radioisotopes / Q000627:therapeutic use; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D009502:Neutrons; D017785:Photons; D010984:Platinum / Q000737:chemistry; D011868:Radioisotopes / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D011874:Radiometry / Q000379:methods; D011878:Radiotherapy / Q000379:methods; D012984:Software; D013932:Thulium / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D015018:Ytterbium / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D007496:Iridium Radioisotopes; D011868:Radioisotopes; D010984:Platinum; D013932:Thulium; D015018:Ytterbium